第一章句子的形成：
概说1任一句子定由主语（subject.S）和动词(verb.V)形成。
2有时主语可以省略，形成祈使句如：Work hard＝(you should) work hard.
3祈使句变否定形式，在动词原形前加Don't.
例:Don't be silly.（别傻了）Don't fool around.（别游手好闲）
第一节可作主语的词类包括：名词、代词、动名词、不定式短语、名词短语、名词性从句、表的距离的地点副词短语等
1.名词(n.noun)
The tulip is purple.
2.代词(pron.pronoun)
She uses her charm to manipulate people.
3.动名词（verbal noun)
Wasting your time is stupid.
4.动词不定式短语(infinitive phrase)
To read books is the purpose of learning more knowledge.
用it做形式主语
It makes me calm to listen to light music .
*固定搭配it is no use＋~ing
＝it is useless＋to do
＝it is of no use＋to do
It is no use crying over spilt milk.（覆水难收）
5.名词性从句（nominal clauses）三种：
5.1That从句，任何以主语起首的句子冠以that即成that从句。
5.2whether从句一般疑问句冠以whether且将主语和助动词或be动词位置还原为陈述句顺序，例如：Is she ugly?→Whether she is ugly.或did he come?→Whether he came.
5.3疑问词从句由6w,1h(who,what,why,which,when,where,how)引导的特殊疑问句，动词还原到主语之后。
例：what are you doing?→what you are doing.
When did he come?→when he came.
Where did she see him?→where she saw him.
Who are you?→who you are.
Why did he write the article?→why he wrote the article.
Which did they choose?which they chose.
Which was bought?→which was bought.
How can we get more money?→how we can get more money.
5.4名词性从句的功用：名词性从句是由陈述句和疑问句变化而成和动名词或不定式短语一样，也可被视为名词，故可作主语、宾语或中be动词之后做表语。
5.4.1名词性从句作主语That
honesty is the best policy
（名词性从句主语）is a proverb
(which)we should always keep in mind（定语从句）。
上句主语太长可变形为It is a proverb(which) we should always keep in mind that honesty is the best pilicy.
5.4.2名词性从句作及物动词（transitive verb vt.）宾语（object）
例：I know that he will go aboard in the near future.
They didn't care how i would deal with the tact.
He wonders whether she has completed the object.
5.4.3名词性从句作介词（preposition prep. ）宾语（object）
5.4.3.1不能接that从句，只可用whether从句和疑问词引导的名词性从句。
I am worried about whether he can catch the train in time.
He remains curious about why she neglects him.
I wonder about what happened.
Don't break in when he is telling the story.
5.4.3.2the fact that遇介词后，非得用that从句时，在介词后加the fact作介宾，接that从句作the fact的同位语。
I'm sure of the fact that he went out in the second round of the tounament.
5.4.3.3习惯用语in that和except that及notwithstanding that
He is talented in that he can speak eight different languages.＝He is talented because he can speak eight different languages.
He is nice except that sometimes he lies
Notwithstanding that she is nice,I don't like her.＝Despite the fact that she is nice,I don't like her.＝In spite of the fact that she is nice,I don't like her.
5.5名词短语作主语由疑问词＋不定式短语形成
5.5.1疑问副词where,when,how,whether
When to meet them is the question which we have to consider＝when we should meet them is the question we have to consider.
Where to redeem the coupon was appointed＝where we should redeem the coupon was appointed.
Whether to divorce annoys me＝whether we should divorce annoys me.
How to increase our profit is the point of the conference.
5.5.2疑问代词what whom
What to do was wroten in the brochure.＝what we should do was wroten in the brochure.
Whom to see is a mystery.＝whom we should see is a mystery.
Which to annul is apuzzl.＝which we should annul is a puzzl.
5.6地点副词短语作主语from＋地点名词＋to＋地点名词与单数be动词连用
From Beijing to Moscow is about 7000 kilometers.＝It is 7000 kilometers from Moscow to Beijing.
第二节 动词的种类及用法
1.动词分为五大类
1.1完全不及物动词（complete intransitive verb 简写c.vi.）
1.2不完全不及物动词（incomplete intransitive verb简写i.vi.）
1.3完全及物动词（complete transitive verb简写c.vt.）
1.4不完全及物动词（incomplete transitive verb简写i.vt.）
1.5授予动词（dative verb简写d.v.）
2.如何判断是及物动词还是不及物动词
我_____他（主动）；他被我_______（被动）在上列空格中放入一个英语动词，译成中文后意思都没毛病则是及物动词，否则是不及物动词。例如see我看到他；他被我看到.意思没毛病，所以see是及物动词，再如:dance我跳舞他，他被我跳舞所以dance是不及物动词。上列公式中宾语可任意替换以符合文意，如I climbed the wall;The wall was climbed by me.可见climb是及物动词。
3.兼作及物和不及物的动词，有些动词有两个或多个意思，套用上法可判断区别其具体情况的语意
Sing 唱歌vi. 唱（一首歌）vt.
Run 经营（企业）vt. 跑步vi.
Study研究（问题）vt. 学习vi.
Kill杀死（人或物）vt. 杀戮vi.
4.不及物动词变及物动词，用同系名词作宾语
Dream your dream;live a happy life;smile a bright smile;laugh a hearty laugh;sigh a deep sigh;sleep asound sleep
5完全不及物动词即意思完全的不及物动词，其单独在主语后，意思就很完全，之后不需要加名词或形容词补充其意思的不足。例如：he laughed.
5.1完全不及物动词出现的形态
主语（S.）＋完全不及物动词（c.vi.）
Something is happening.
He died.
5.2.完全不及物动词后可接副词（adverb简写adv.）或副词对等语（如状语从句等），以修饰该动词。
He dided in an accident.（地点状语）
She left because she didn't want to hear noise.（原因状语）
He study hard.（副词,努力地，hard修饰完全不及物动词，学习，study）
6.不完全不及物动词incomplete intransitive verb即系动词，自身意思不完全，所以无法单独存在，之后需要有名词、形容词或名词对等语（如代词、动名词，不定式，名词性从句名词短语等）作表语（subjective complement 简称s.c.）以补充意思的不足。
You are a good student.
My trouble is that i have no money.
She became happy.
6.1完全不及物动词的种类（6种）及其表语的用法
6.1.1be动词之后可用名词（含名词对等语）或形容词（含作形容词的现在分词、过去分词、介词短语、地点副词或地点副词短语等）作表语。用名词作表语时be译为是；用形容词作表语时be不用译；用地点副词和地点副词短语作表语时be译成在。be之后的11种表语：
①名词He is a great hero.
②名词性从句The problem is whether he can join us.
③名词短语The question is when to set out.
④作名词的动名词短语My hobby is collecting stamps.
⑤作名词的不定式短语My purpose here is to see her.
⑥形容词she is beautiful.
⑦作形容词的现在分词The story is interesting.
⑧作形容词的过去分词I am interested in the story.
⑨昨形容词的介词短语The book is of great value.
⑩地点副词They are upstairs.
11地点副词短语she is in danger.
They are at home.
注意be动词 后面的现在分词有俩种词性，一种是作形容词译作……的，另一种是动词的进行时的现在分词译作正在……；be动词之后的过去分词也有两种词性，一种是形容词译作感到……的，另一种是及物动词的被动语态译作被……
The man is tired.译作这人感到很累。（形容词作表语）
例：
The man was killed.（被动语态）若译作这人感到很杀，则语意不通，所以是被动语态，应译作这人被杀了。
现在分词：be后和主语不能互换He is washing the car.他正在洗车。
动名词:be后和主语可互换位置His job is washing the car.他的工作是洗车washing the car is his job.洗车是他的工作。
6.1.2become变成（可用任何名词、形容词和可作形容词用的现在分词或过去分词）作表语。
例：He became furious.
You will become a prudent student if you study intently.
She is becoming more more charming.
After failing,he became depressed.
6.1.3turn（变成）通常只用形容词作表语，而且能用的形容词多与颜色和情绪有关。
例：
His face turned pale when he heard the news.
The leaves are turning yellow.
His face turned red with shame when heviewed the scene.
注意：turn可用以表示转业，通常与名词连用，形成复合形容词。
Jack is a soldier-turned farmer.（军人转业的）。
6.1.4.get（变成）通常用表生气或激动的形容词作表语，其它形容词宜用become.
He got mad.
She became beautiful.
Things have become good.
注意：
①若get用于进行时的结构中，之后可接任何形容词的比较级形态作表语，即:be getting more and more ＋adjective.
例：
She is getting more and more beautiful.
Things are getting better and better.
②被动语态get＋p.p.（过去分词）＝be＋p.p.(past participle）
例：
If you are not careful,you'llget hurt.＝If you are careless,you'll be hurt.
6.1.5.seem＝appear（似乎）后接不定式作表语he seems to know it.
但在seem to be＋名词/形容词，结构中，可省略to be直接用名词/形容词作表语
He seems to be happy.＝He seems happy.
6.1.6五感动词一律译成“……起来”，之后一律用形容词（或可作形容词用的分词）作表语。
Look,sound,smell,taste,feel（看，听，闻，尝，感觉）起来＋形容词。
例：
His idea sounds funny.
It looks interesting.
The soup smells nice.
The cake tastes delicious.
The stone felt rough.
注意：①感官动词后不可用名词作表语，需要与名词连用时须加介词like，再接名词作介宾。
例：It sounds like a good idea.
That material feels like silk.
That tastes like fish.
②feel like＋名词，译作：感觉像……；when mary said she would mary me,I felt like a newborn baby.
Feel like＋动名词，译作：想要……。I feel like taking a walk.＝I would like to take a walk.
③feel,taste,smell也可当完全及物动词，可用名词作宾语，此时应翻译为：feel（摸）taste（尝）smell（闻）＋名词。
The doctor felt my forehead and said i had a fever.
Don't taste that food;it has spoiled.
He smelled something burning.
④look与介词连用时，形成短语动词，可视作及物动词。
例：look into＝investigate调查;
Look over＝examine检查；
Look at＝watch看；
此时就要用副词修饰这些短语动词了。
例：He looked into the case carefully.
副词也常会置于look和介词之间。
例：
She looked happily at me.
He looked carefully into the case.
7.不完全不及物动词的重要短语
Fall ill（fall表变成，ill形容词）
Tom fell ill and couldn't attend school today.汤姆今天病了不能上学了。
Fall asleep.睡着了
Provision ran short.粮食不够了。
Idon't know how he came to be so popular.
此处came to be相当于gradually became逐渐变成。
The document proved to be a forgery.这文件显现出是个伪造品（此处prove作系动词用后接表语）
8.完全及物动词就是加了宾语后意思完全的动词，有主动和被动两个语态。在主动语态中句型为：主语（subject）＋vt.＋宾语（object）
9.完全及物动词的宾语：共计有名词、代词、动名词、不定式、名词性从句及名词短语。
9.1名词作及物动词宾语
Hdidn't buy the bike.
I9.2代词作及物动词宾语代词要用宾格me them him her。
I don't like John.In fact,I hate him.
9.3.不定式作及物动词宾语
这些动词皆含有表示某种愿望，企图的意思。如：want（想要）disire（想要）hope（希望）等
I want to go home.
I hope to have my own house.
I desire to see her again.
9.4.动名词作及物动词宾语并非所有的及物动词都可用动名词作宾语。常见的有：
sshe considered studying aboard.
I once imagined going on a date with her.
Ican't fancy getting along with them.
He risked doing it.
I avoided hearing it again.
He escaped being killed in the accident.
They suggested postponing the convention.
I recommended being on the lookout for idioms.
I enjoy playing a video game.
He resents working overtime.
She practiced playing the cello.
He stoped smoking.
You must quit smoking.most important of all,you should start taking exercise.
Resist＋V-ing抗拒……I couldn't resist having some more ice cream.我忍不住要再吃些冰激凌。我不能抗拒再吃些冰激凌。
Refuse toV拒绝……I refuse to do it.我拒绝去做此事
Expect to V＝anticipate V-ing期望……
Stop V-ing＝quit V-ing＝cease to V＝cease V-ing不再……
He stoped writing after he got maried.
He decided to quit smoking.
They cease working at exactly5:00p.m.＝They cease to woek at exactly 5:00p.m .
Stop to V停下来去……。He stoped to talk to me when he saw me.
特：continue start begin like love hate可用动名词也可用不定式作宾语，意思不变。
He continued trying his luck at the casino.
They started to build the bridge.
He love listening music.
9.5.名词性从句作及物动词的宾语that从句，whether从句和疑问词引导的名词性从句。
9.5.1.that从句作及物动词宾语时，连词that通常可省略。
They feel(that)it is impossible to win the game.
He think(that)the book is worth reading.
9.5.2.whether从句作及物动词宾语时，从句连词whether可用if替代，但whether从句作主语和介宾以及be动词的表语时，不能用if替换。
I don'tknow whether the typhoon will come＝I don't know if the typhoon will come.
I doubt whether the man is competent enough to handle it.＝I doubt if the man is competent enough to handle it.
10.不完全及物动词此类及物动词加了宾语后意思不完全，需要加上补语（complement）以补全意思之不足。例如：make作“制造”或“做”之意解时，为完全及物动词；若当“使”或“叫”之意解时，则为不完全及物动词。he made mary.意思不完全，需要补全。he made mary happy.他使马丽幸福。形容词happy作为宾语补足语（objective complement），以使句意完全。不完全及物动词的分类及用法归纳如下：
10.1役使动词
10.1.1叫……(have,make)＋宾语＋原形动词（作宾补）。I made him wash dishes.
Ihad Tom report to me.
注意：
a)get也可表“叫……”之意，但只能用不定式作宾补。I got him to drive the car.
b)make也可用于被动语态，have和get只能用于主动语态。I made him wash the car→He was made to wash the car.（变被动语态时，原形动词要变成不定式）。
10.1.2.let让……句型为:
a)let＋宾语＋原形动词（作宾补）。I let her try it.
b)let＋宾语＋作副词用的介词（in,out,down）
He let me in.
Don't let him out.
This performance let me down.这表演让我失望。
10.1.3强迫/要求/怂恿/催促……此类动词＋宾语＋不定式（作宾补）
I forced him to recite the text.
Iasked her to type the document.
I encouraged him to learn more about chess.
They compelled me to read the book against my will.
He told me to finish the work by eleven.
此类动词还有许多如Push/seduce/entice/expect/want等＋one＋to……此类动词变被动语态时仍用不定式作补语。
10.1.4make使……成为，句型为make＋one＋名词/形容词作补语
The trip made her happy.
His teacher made him a excellent scholar.
10.2.知觉动词
See,observe,watch,notic,look at,hear,listen to,feel此类动词可用作完全及物动词，加上宾语后无需再加补语。
He felt a pain in his back.
I was listening to music.
Did you see them?
注意：a)此类动词也可作不完全及物动词，另加补语。译作……，……了。
Isaw him dance.我看见他跳舞了。
b)用现在分词作补语表进行状态，译作“……正在……”。
As i push the door open,i felt my legs trembling.
c)用过去分词作补语，表被动语态，译作“……被……了”。
Isaw him lifted.我看见他被掉起来了。
I notice the window closed.我注意到窗户被关上了。
10.3.任命动词此类动词多表选举、指派之意，其宾语后直接表职位的名词，通常该名词前省略冠词。常见的有：elect,assign,apoint,
We elect him chairman of the commitee.
The colonel assigned him platoon commander.
10.4.认定动词此类动词均表“视……为……”之意，用名词或形容词作宾语补语。
10.4.1.与介词连用
We regard\look upon\think of\see\view him as a genius.
Imistook the long-haired boy for a girl.
10.4.2.与to be连用
We consider\think\deem him to be a genius\ to be nice.
To be可省略而成
We consider\deem\think him a genius\nice.
注意：
a)一般介词后只能用名词、代词或动名词作宾语
Iam sick of his rude attitude.
I'm sick of associating with him.
但表“视……为”的动词与as或for连用时，还可直接形容词作补语。
I regard his behavior as inappropriate.
John works hard,so i take it granted that he will be successful.
b)Think,believe,find,deem,consider这五个动词作不完全及物动词时，全都译作“认为……是……”不能直接不定式作宾语，一定要用it作形式宾语，在it后接名词或形容词作补语后，再接不定式（真正的宾语）。
Ithink it fun to climb mountains.
I find it necessary to do the work.
Ibelieve ir worthwhile to study hard.
I deem it an honor to give this speech.
但这五个动词也可用作完全及物动词，那时要接that引导的名词性从句，believe,find,think,deem,consider要译作相信，发现，认为。
I think that it is interesting to climb moubtains.
I believe that it is worthwhile to study hard.
That引导的名词性从句作及物动词宾语可省略that所以有
I think(that) it is interesting to climb mountains.及I think it interesting to climb mountains.两句句型结构不同（前者为完全及物动词，后者为不完全及物动词），但语意完全相同。
c)make作不完全及物动词时译作“使……成为……”其不能直接不定式，要加形式宾语it后跟补语再接不定式。
I made it arule to get up early.
Working hard made it possible for him to win the honour.
d)find believe think deem consider这五词作不完全及物动词时，也不得直接that引导的名词性从句作宾语，一定要用形式宾语it取代。
I find it wonderful that he sings so well.
The difficulty of the job made it necessary that he should do it with care.
I believe it essential that he should work hard.
e)转变动词此类动词均表“使……变成……”之意，常用的有change和turn两个，通常要与into连用。
The expereience turned\changed him into an excellent scholar.
f)其它重要的不完全及物动词：set,paint,cry,strike,render,drive,call,name,leave,keep,want,help
I set her free.
I painted thwall white.
The sight struck him dumb.
The baby cried itself to sleep.
Their assistance will render success certain.
The misfortune nearly drove him mad.
He named thebaby Lucy.
We called him a liar.
Dn't leave the door open.
You must keep yourteeth clean.
I want the job done bo later than five.
Help me(to)find my key.
11授予动词（dative verb)为及物动词的一种，只是接两个宾语。第一个宾语叫间接宾语(indirect object简写i.o.)表授予的对象；第二个叫直接宾语(direct object简写d.o.)表授予的东西。
例：
I will give you the watch.
Please lend me your book.
I bought him a iphone.
Iasked him a question.
上述结构中，you,me,him均为间接宾语。
12.直接宾语和间接宾语倒置原则
12.1有给予的概念的用to
I gave th book to him.
I send the letter to him.
I told the details to him.
I taught English to them.
12.2.表“代劳”概念的用for
I made a desk for him.
12.3.表“从……中”概念的，用of
I asked a question of him.凡表“要求”的动词皆如此。
Ididn't expect much of him.
She required nothing of me.
He demanded little of me.
注意：expect,require,demand不得像ask一样将间接宾语置于直接宾语之前。
13.与of连用的授予动词不同的是此处of之后是表东西的名词为宾语，而不是表对象的宾语。
13.1.rob抢夺
He robbed me of my money.
13.2.deprive剥夺（权利）
The court deprived him of all his civil right.
13.3.relieve解除（职务、指挥权等）
The captain relieved the platoon leader of his command.
13.4.rid解除、摆脱
I can not rid myself of the painful memory.=Ican not get rid of the painful memory
I'll get rid of those chores（表动作）要摆脱
I'm glad to be rid of those chores.（表状态）已摆脱。
13.5.break戒除
Youshould break\rid yourself of the bad habit of smoking.
13.6.cure治愈
The doctor cured him of his disease=the doctor cured his disease.
14表提供的授予动词
有Provid apply offer furnish present等。除offer以外，其余的词要与介词我with 连用
He offered me all i needed=He provided me with all i needed.=he supplied me with all i needed=He furnished me with all i needed.=He offered all i needed to me=He provided all i needed for me.
Offer也有表“愿意、主动提议”时，接不定式作宾语。He heard my situation,he offered to help me.
Present赠予的用法与provide相似，不同的是间接宾语在句尾时要用介词to相连。
He present a watch to me.
Explain,introduce,propose,recommend,express这些动词都将间接宾语置于句尾，并用to连接。
He explained the reason to me.
He introduced th girl to me.
He recommended th method to me.
He proposed a motion to the commitee.
特：I took apicture of him.照片中有他用of;
I took apicture for him.目的是为了给他，照片中不一定有他。
第三节总结
1.陈述句五大句型从动词的五种分类（c.vi.;i.vi. ;c.vt.;i.vt.d.v.）演绎成五大句型：
第一句型：主语＋完全不及物动词：
He fained.
He slept.
主语＋完全不及物动词＋副词
He went away.
He went to the station（介词短语作副词用）
第二句型：主语＋不完全不及物动词＋表语
He looks happy.
第三句型：主语＋完全及物动词＋宾语
He ate it.
He wants to do it.（不定式作意愿动词的宾语）
He knows( that) she is wrong.（that名词性从句作宾语）
I wonder whether he'll come.（whether名词性从句作宾语）
They enjoy dancing.（动名词作宾语）
I don't know how to do it.名词短语作宾语
第四句型：主语＋不完全及物动词＋宾语＋宾补
He made me happy.
We elect him chairman.
第五句型：主语＋授予动词＋间接宾语＋直接宾语
Igave him a book.
2.祈使句、感叹句、问句：
2.1祈使句就是把主语you和助动词should或must省略的句子。此类句型以动词原形开头，可视语气强弱用感叹号。
第一句型：
肯定型you must run now→Run!
否定型don't run!
第二句型：
肯定型you must be quiet now!→Be quiet!（安静!）
否定型Don't be quiet!（別不吭声!）
第三句型you must open the door now.→Open the door!
否定型Don't open the door!
第四句型：
You should make him do it.→Make him do it!
否定型Don't make him do it.
第五句型
肯定型you must send him a letter.→Send him a letter.
否定型Don'tsend him any letter.
Don't try it=Never try it
2.2.感叹句均由how或what引导句型如下
2.2.1what+n.+主语+动词……!
What a beautiful car he has!
2.2.2.how+adj.或adv.+主语＋动词……!
How hard he studied!
How great a man he is!=How a great man he is!在how+adj.后只可跟单数名词，不可跟复数或不可数名词。但是how之后可接many,much,little,few之类的数量形容词，再接复数或不可数名词。
How many students there is in the classroom!
How few friend he has!
How much money he has made!
How little time is left!
2.3疑问句分为一般疑问句和特殊疑问句。
2.3.1.一般疑问句皆可用yes/no回答，由陈述句变化而成，方法如下：
a)有be动词的将be动词置于主语之前，句尾加?号即成。
AAb)句中有助动词如：can,could,may,might,will,would,shall,should,musthave（has had）等，将该助动词置于主语前。
c)句中若无助动词或be动词，仅有一般动词，先按照时态和主语人称之不同，这在句首加do does或did并将主语之后的动词一律改为原形动词。
2.3.2.特殊疑问句以疑问词（who whom what why which when where how）引导，不可用yes/no回答。形成方法：选定要问的问题对应的疑问词后跟一般疑问句型。