gre阅读passage71-105

passage71 16:53min

The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1868, prohibits state governments from denying citizens the “equal protection of the laws.” Although precisely what the framers of the amendment meant by this equal protection clause remains unclear, all interpreters agree that the framers’ immediate objective was to provide a constitutional warrant for the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which guaranteed the citizenship of all persons born in the United States and subject to United States jurisdiction. This declaration, which was echoed in the text of the Fourteenth Amendment, was designed primarily to counter the Supreme Court’s ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford that Black people in the United States could be denied citizenship. （你看，这里提到了CRA是由于DSVS 导致的）（而下面的指的是颁布的行为之前做的事）The act was vetoed by President Andrew Johnson, （这里有点解释FA颁布的真正原因）who argued that the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery, did not provide（congress’ authority with regard to legislating civil rights had not been challenged） Congress with the authority to extend citizenship and equal protection to the freed slaves. Although Congress promptly overrode Johnson’s veto, supporters of the act sought to ensure its constitutional foundations with the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment.

most state governments had been willing to protect citizens’ civil rights

这里是没有提到state是什么情况

The broad language of the amendment strongly suggests that its framers were proposing to write into the Constitution not a laundry list of specific civil rights but a principle of equal citizenship that forbids organized society from treating any individual as a member of an inferior class. Yet for the first eight decades of the amendment’s existence, the Supreme Court’s interpretation of the amendment betrayed this ideal of equality. In the Civil Rights Cases of 1883, for example, the Court invented the “state action” limitation,（allow some discriminatory practices to continue unimpeded by the Fourteenth Amendment）（注意这个例子的作用） which asserts that “private” decisions by owners of public accommodations and other commercial business to segregate their facilities are insulated from the reach of the Fourteenth Amendment’s guarantee of equal protection under the law.

After the Second World War, a judicial climate more hospitable to equal protection claims culminated in the Supreme Court’s ruling in Brown v. Board of Education that racially segregated schools violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Two doctrines embraced by the Supreme Court during this period extended the amendment’s reach. First, the Court required especially strict scrutiny of legislation that employed a “suspect classification,” meaning discrimination against a group on grounds that could be construed as racial. This doctrine has broadened the application of the Fourteenth Amendment to other, nonracial forms of discrimination, for while some justices have refused to find any legislative classification other than race to be constitutionally disfavored, most have been receptive to arguments that at least some nonracial discriminations, sexual discrimination in particular, are “suspect” and deserve this heightened scrutiny by the courts. Second, the Court relaxed the state action limitation on the Fourteenth Amendment, bringing new forms of private conduct within the amendment’ s reach（这里要联系，之前因为没有这一点而出现什么问题了）

It caused legislators who were writing new legislation to reject language that could be construed as permitting racial discrimination.

这个并不是说对于legislators这种人的影响

Interpreters of the Fourteenth Amendment have yet to reach consensus with regard to what its framers meant by the equal protection clause

这个文中是说为了the Civil Rights Act

Not until after the Second World War did the Supreme Court begin to interpret the Fourteenth Amendment in a manner consistent with the principle of equal citizenship that it express.

而这篇文章是说，如何制定后不起作用，然后又有所改变的

passage72 11:29min

Yet temperatures during the Precambrian (3.8 billion to 540 million years ago) are thought to have been warmer than those in today’s nonglacial world. Thus, Rampino thinks that certain tillites were produced by meteor impacts, not glaciers. （这里是怀疑起源，这个最直接）The first compelling evidence that meteor impacts might have produced tillites came from Moon rocks that showed the same features as earthly tillites. Since no one believes the Moon ever had glaciers, that leaves but one possible cause: impacts

It can be inferred from the passage that author would agree that the similarity between

terrestrial tillites and certain Moon rocks is significant because this similarity

suggest that it is unlikely that glaciers have produced tillites on Earth

用这个例子只是想说，tillites 可能由他因引起，而不是直接说就不是

Rampino’s explanation regarding the origin of certain terrestrial tillits

而这种说法比较准确

passage73 11:21min

这篇文章是一个回顾过去，然后展开新观点的

第一段写的是之前认为的矛盾性

之后二三段分别从不同的角度来说其实是有关系的

reconcile two competing positions in an ongoing critical debat

并不是和解立场

provide support for a new approach to a writer’s work

这相当于原文中的“feminine Romanticism”这是a new approach

Jane Austen’ s relationship to Romanticism has long been a vexed one. Although her dates (1775-1817) place her squarely within the period, she traditionally has been studied apart from the male poets whose work defined British Romanticism for most of the twentieth century. In the past her novels were thought to follow an Augustan mode at odds with the Romantic ethos. Even with the advent of historicist and feminist criticism, which challenged many previous characterizations of Austen as detached from the major social, political and aesthetic currents of her time, she continued to be distinguished from her male contemporaries. Jerome McCann, for example, insists that Austen does not espouse the Romantic ideology. Anne Mellor declares that Austen, along with other “leading women intellectual and writers of the day” “did not”, participate in the Romantic “spirit of the age” but instead embraced an alternative ideology that Mellor labels “feminine Romanticism”.

这里其实就是说她其实是不一样的alternative 就是很不一样

It resolves Austen’ s vexed relationship to Romanticism by demonstrating her affinity with Romantic ideology这一点是没有的

这里在句子中包含了之前的观点

her novels were written during the Romantic period, yet she is not treated as a Romantic writer

her views seem to be at odds with those of male writer whose works defined British Romanticism并不是她本省，而是别人

more likely to find connections between her novels and Romantic poetry

文中很明确的不是这一点

 

passage74 1:45min

The damage that trucks do to highways escalates dramatically with the weight borne per axle. New regulations increase the maximum permitted vehicle weight; these regulations will therefore allow onto the highway trucks capable of doing even more damage than those currently permitted.

就是说这个分式 有两个因素

omits evidence about one of the two relevant factors所以忽视了一个因素

presumes that something is bound to happen just because it is allowed to happen不准确

 

passage75 2:43min

Normally, seeds of Emmenathe penduliflora stay dormant for years and germinate only when a fire burns through their habitat. Nitrogen dioxide in the smoke induces the seeds to germinate. Fires clear the brush, allowing germinating seeds to receive the sunlight they need to grow. The plants mature quickly, produce seeds, and then die. In areas with heavy automobile traffic, however, the seed germinates in the absence of fire, with automobile exhaust supplying the required nitrogen dioxide

If human intervention decreases the number of fires in the habitat of E. Penduliflora, automobile exhaust can replicate the conditions the plant requires in order to thrive.这里condition 其实是有两个

Unless E. Penduliflora seeds that have germinated can survive in the shade,（对应第二个条件） automobile exhaust threatens the long-term survival of the plant in areas with heavy automobile traffic.（就是说germinate 之后无法存活）

 

passage76 2:11min

In most coastal regions, the level of the sea is rising in relation to the land by one to two millimeters a year, and this trend would be explained by the hypothesis that at the North and South Poles, the amount of ice that melts during the summer now exceeds the amount forms during the winter. The hypothesis is not undermined by observations that sea levels are falling relative to the Scandinavian coast by four millimeters a year. Much land in northern latitudes, including Scandinavia, is still rising in response to being freed of the enormous weight of the ice that used to cover it during the last ice age, and in Scandinavia the land is now rising faster than the sea.

The first presents a phenomenon, two competing explanations of which are considered in the passage; the second is the explanation of the phenomenon that the passage argues is correct.

注意这种表述，这个现象事实上于argue 不一致

The first states observations that, according to the passage , can be reconciled with a certain hypothesis; the second describes a phenomenon that is factual basis of that reconciliation.

应当说是看似不一致，但是实际可协调

 

passage77 3:32min

Editors of major United States news magazines have been criticized for reducing the amount of space these magazines devote to international news. According to these editors, however, readers are wholly to blame for the reductions（editors的观点，之后+解释）. After all, the editors point out, sales of magazine issues that prominently feature international news stories have declined significantly, and declining sales reflect declining reader interest.

注意yet之后是作者观点

Yet even if true, this evidence does not refute the contention that editors should bear some of the blame for the reductions, unless editors are merely passive instruments responding to reader interest(unless表示editors对于reader是被动的). And that is（代指unless） clearly an untenable view, since editors can often intensify reader interest in a news topic by giving it frequent coverage.（这个since表示editor 对于reader 可以做一些事）

所以一共两个观点

The first is evidence that has been used to support a position that the argument opposes; the second is a point that the argument raises to cast doubt on the reasoning used to support that position.

The first presents a claim, the truth of which is evaluated in the argument, the second is information introduced to cast doubt on that claim.

你注意第一部分并不是claim，而就是evidence

passage78 2:46min

passage79 5:08min

Elizabeth Bishop’s Complete Poems(1927-1979) has come to seem to most of its readers so achieved and sufficient as a life’s work that it is hard not to lose sight of how slowly Bishop wrote poems and of how few poems, finally, she completed. But Bishop herself never ceased to find her productivity inadequate. The size and pace of her output were always in her eyes a failing (vaguely moral in complexion(appearance)) for which she apologized throughout her career, although, as I will argue in this essay, Bishop’s inability to write more poems than she did was also a refusal to do so.

注意下面几句话的逻辑

The small, manageable size of Bishop’s body of work has facilitated its extraordinary critical reception（这是正评价） since her death. (Robert Lowell, whose oeuvre is so much larger, has never had a complete edition of his poetry published.)（the favorable scholarly attention that Bishop’s work has received since her death）（这个括号里的是对比另一种情况）（而之后的yet才开始讨论这样的不好） Yet the size of her work is also a sign of Bishop’s alienation, that is, her uneasy, resistant relation to the literary culture that today claims her as the major poet of her generation.

passage80 3:51min

Shoreland County recently purchased an area of wilderness land in the county to prevent it from being developed.

注意这里明确表示不开发了，所以下面的选项在胡说

The money the county would have had to expend for services to residences or industry developed on the wilderness land would have exceeded the tax revenue from the developed land.

预测的所基于的

In doing so, the county has forfeited all future property taxes on this land. Property taxes are assessed on market value, and if developed, the land would have contributed significantly to the county’s overall annual tax revenue.

这里讲这件事forfeit了property taxes，而property taxes由market value决定，if developed，the land会贡献很多

下面是结论

Because of the purchase, therefore, overall annual tax revenue will be lower than it would have been if development had occurred.

就是说，他考虑到overall annual tax revenue会decrease，但是只是关注了an area of wilderness，但是实际上周边可能变化

Land near the area bought by the county will not increase significantly in market value as a result of being near wilderness that is protected from development

overall annual tax revenue这个是关注的点

passage81 4:52min

Following the United States Civil War (1861-1865), many former slaves in the rural South became sharecroppers (raising a landlord’ s crop for a share of the profits) or tenant farmers (selling what they raised and paying a share of the profits as rent).Most historians tend to depict these African Americans as victims of racism and the farm tenancy system. This approach, however, overlooks the role played by such African American rural reformers as Robert Lloyd Smith, founder of the Farmers' Improvement Society of Texas, and Joseph Elward Clayton, the first African American to organize farmers' institutes for the Texas Department of Agriculture. Both men advocated comfortable homes and better schools for African Americans; both attributed poverty and illiteracy to causes other than racism, such as insect damage to crops; and both worked to keep Black farmers on the land, although Smith opposed farm tenancy. Both were also accused by their contemporaries of downplaying the devastating impact of the farm tenancy system on Black farmers and of accommodating racism. While the extent of these reformers' influence requires more study, clearly their organizations provided a voice for African American farmers seeking to improve their positions in the agrarian South.

要注意引人物的作用是什么

This approach, however,从这之后 其实是用SC来说，他们是怎样provided a voice for African American farmers的

There is evidence demonstrating that they were committed to aiding African American farmers in the rural South

More research is required to determine whether or not their organizations were typical of those established to aid African American framers in the post-Civil War rural South

首先，应该是来讲aid 而不是要证实什么

其次，文中提到的是these reformers到底有多少影响，而不是是不是典型，意思有点不一样

passage82 1:38min 

passage83 2:32min 

passage84 4:14min 

The origin of Norwegian egalitarian predates industrialism and the rise of the labor movement. The preindustrial economy was based largely on a small independent peasantry who combined agriculture with fishing (in the north) or with forestry (in the south). Because Norway was under foreign rule for five centuries until 1905, and because the topography is unfavorable for large estates, a strong aristocracy and landowner class did not emerge in most of Norway. There were some exceptions to this pattern, especially in the southern regions where a landowner class did exist. Norway’s early social and economic history engendered egalitarianism, although, as has been pointed out by several observers, it was an equality of poverty

Southern Norwegian peasants relied primarily on fishing for subsistence, while Northern Norwegians relied on forestry

这个其实并不是要说的重点

主要还是说的equality，另外这样的经济不同，更为凸显的是最后的equality问题

passage85 2:08min 

这个逻辑是我想增加worker的访问，但事实上，他们并不是减少的主要部分，是因为别的群体的人减少了

passage86 2:22min 

In the recent past, the level of sulfur dioxide in Venus’ atmosphere was not much higher than it is now.

过去并不比现在高多少，如果只是吸收的话，现在理应少了

passage87 6:07min 

Is Mars’s north similarly characterized by a sort of crust different from other areas of the planet?

Some researchers do see signs of tectonic activity surrounding the northern basin that suggest that it was created through the formation of new crust, like ocean basins on Earth.

However, McGill points to Northern bedrock structures that predate the features said to mark the start of the tectonic process. McGill instead believes that through some novel mechanism the ancient surface sank to its current depth as a single unit.（这个相当于是mechanism产生的结果） This would explain why features around the basin’s edge, which would have formed as the surface dropped, seem to be younger than structures at its floor.

does not specify the force that caused the northern basin to be lower than its surroundings这里没有说出some novel mechanism是什么

attributes the creation of the northern lowlands to processes occurring within the planet这里其实更像说第一点

The third possibility is that the northern lowlands result from impacts. Some researchers suggest they formed as a series of big overlapping impact craters. Others arguing that the odds against such a pattern of impacts are large, postulate a single event-the impact of an object bigger than any asteroid the solar system now contains.

要分清几方观点

有可能错误的分配

理解主要要说什么事

passage88 5:19min 

passage89 1:48min  

取非题就先不读not

Some conservationists, concerned about the rapid depletion through poaching of elephant herds in certain parts of Africa, are urging countries to which ivory is sold to ban ivory importation.

让进口国不接受

This ban, they argue, would prevent ivory sellers from reaching their market, （想法）and elephant herds would have a chance to recover

这里的观点其实是，ban ivory importation

The capacity of any illegal channels that may exist for the sale of ivory in export markets cannot expand to meet demand in those markets

In some parts of Africa where poaching has depleted elephant herds, those herds are already beyond recovery

实际上是考虑的ban能不能阻止poach的问题

passage90 3:39min   

passage91 1:45min    

passage92 3:35min    

Bad science writing splinters the most interesting feature of science, its long run of connected argumentation, into isolated metaphors that last just long enough to evoke a particular result: black holes are said to be huge funnels and quantum electron orbits are characterized as diffuse clouds

注意前面是什么

passage93 2:45min    

passage94 2:48min    

破坏tourism

It highlighted an inaccuracy in the report by Valsecchi and colleagues

这个是指出别人问题的意思

It led to an incorrect supposition on the part of some scientists

这里其实就是说他只是某些研究的特殊情况

注意理解句意

At the time, this was unexpected because Gaief and colleagues (1984) had previously reported no familiarity effect in Norway rats on social learning of food preferences. However, Gaief et al (1998) subsequently uncovered a significant familiarity effect that was evident when demonstrators are some hours before interacting with observers but absent when demonstrators are immediately before interacting.

passage95 3:02min

passage96 3:01min

The first French missionary journal, was not published until 1717, several years after European porcelain manufacture began. Therefore, rather than copying the Chinese techniques, the European manufacturers must have learned by experiment.

要突出是自己创造的

The first porcelain factory in Europe was founded in Germany by a manufacturer who had no channels of communication with China or Europeans working in China.

不是说原料之类的

he particular raw materials that are needed to make porcelain were not used in European ceramic making until the manufacture of porcelain began

passage97 1:07min 

passage98 3:08min 

The crustaceans known as harpacticoids are very widespread in marine sediments, where they feed on microorganisms by ingesting the sediment particles to which the microorganisms adhere. Heavy metals, such as those found in industrial pollution, readily adhere to sediment particles. Harpacticoids are poisoned by heavy metals but are unaffected by most other pollutants. Therefore the concentration of harpacticoids in an area is a good indication of whether that marine environment contains heavy metals

是一个很好的indication是不是含有heavy metals

但是并不关心它从哪来

Industrial pollution is the principal source of heavy metals in marine sediments

Harpacticoids之所以是indication是因为它吃microorganisms而heavy metals附在上面所以

The microorganisms that harpacticoids feed on are not killed by pollutants that are harmless to harpacticoids

所以microorganisms在这种条件下要活着

 

passage99 3:04min  

找它因

passage100 3:27min  

passage101 8:37min  

In the discussion about the importance of forests, however, emphasize has fallen on biodiversity, or numbers of species per unit area, especially in the tropics, where such diversity is particularly high. But forests, it should be emphasized, have a similar role in every latitude they contain the largest numbers of different kinds of plants and animals of any community on land and might be considered the most highly developed of the terrestrial communities from the standpoint of complexity of structure and diversity of life and life forms. Forests are far more than simple collections of species, however, it is unfortunate that the discussion of biotic or living resources has been focused on biodiversity rather than on the actual ability of the land itself to support life.( It has led to an underestimation of the importance of some forests) In order for the complete range of plant and animal life to thrive, the soil must contain essential nutrients in their proper quantities and proportions, and the atmosphere must be composed of the correct molecules in their proper proportions. If the soils were to become infertile and the atmosphere inhospitable, more than mere diversity or numbers of species would be lost, the land would become impoverished and no longer be able to support any life.

It has led to an increase in the rate at which the land is becoming impoverished

无中生有

show that forests are far more than simple collections species是为了说

强调重要然后说一种行为

explain why a certain development in the discussion of forests is regrettable

 

passage102 5:42min  

这里是时间取反

Until the 1980s, in what Blakemore and Harley called “the Old is Beautiful Paradigm,” scholars largely focused on maps made before 1800（expanded their range of study to include more material created after 1800）, marveling at their beauty and sometimes regretting the decline of the pre-technical age

It can be inferred from the passage that, beginning in the 1980s, historians of cartography

是focus的范围有变化

reduced the attention they paid to the technical aspects of mapmaking

 

passage103 6:14min  

Researchers have long disagreed about whether data collected in the 1950s indicate that chimpanzees and other apes experience an adolescent growth spurt

并不是来讲一直以来怎样，

Although the idea that apes experience an adolescent growth has received some support, most biologists remain unconvinced.

应当说这种说法更为具体

Most mammals reach sexual maturity when their growth rates are in decline, whereas humans experience a growth spurt during adolescence. Whether apes experience an adolescent growth spurt is still undecided. In the 1950s, data on captive chimpanzees collected by James Gavan appeared devoid of evidence of an adolescent growth spurt in these apes. In a recent reanalysis of Gavan’s data, however, zoologist Elizabeth Watts has found that as chimpanzees reach sexual maturity, the growth rate of their limbs accelerates. Most biologists, however, are skeptical that this is a humanlike adolescent growth spurt. While the human adolescent growth spurt is physically obvious and affects virtually the entire body, the chimpanzee’s increased growth rate is detectable only through sophisticated mathematical analysis. Moreover, according to scientist Holly Smith, the growth rate increase in chimpanzees begins when 86% of full skeletal growth has been attained, whereas human adolescence generally commences when 77 percent of full skeletal growth has occurred.

Chimpanzees do not experience a demonstrable increase in growth rate until they are fully sexually mature.这一点本身错

The passage mentions which of the following as one of the reasons why most biologists remain skeptical that chimpanzees experience a humanlike adolescent growth spurt?

注意一下这些人在哪提到的

The increase in growth rate that chimpanzees undergo at sexual maturity is less apparent than that of humans.

 

passage104 5:49min  

Many cultural anthropologists have come to reject the scientific framework of empiricism that dominated the field until the 1970s（这个状语很诡异） and now regard all scientific knowledge as socially constructed.

They regarded scientific knowledge as consisting of empirical truths

passage105 6:10min  

For the subjects of Harper’s study, solitude in both the private and public spheres prevailed—a solitude that conferred authority, hitherto a male prerogative, but that also precluded any collective action or female solidarity

It prevented formation of alliances with other women.