林业发展及生态环境

THE IMPACTS OF INSTITUTIONAL EVOLUTION ON FORESTRY DEVELOPMENT _Zhang Lei

• 1949–1982

• The Ministry of Forestry Reclamation, one of the primary group of 19 agencies of the Government Administration Council, had authoritative departments and straightforward mandates such that forestry development proceeded at a rapid pace. As early as 1954, the achievements of New China’s forestry initiative were acclaimed at the 4th World Forestry Conference. Between 1966 and 1978, however, the forestry sector was paralyzed by the Cultural Revolution during which there was considerable interference in forestry including heavy and persistent exploitation of forest resources. From 1970 to 1978, forestry organizations, at both central and local levels, were merged into agricultural and forestry units which greatly diminished their authority. Afforestation and greening stagnated and forest resources deteriorated grievously through lack of management. Consequently, forest cover decreased from 12.7 to 12 percent in less than ten years. Nevertheless, in February 1979 the Ministry of Forestry was established and the Forestry Law of the People’s Republic of China (for Trial) was issued. After this the state began to put more emphasis on forestry development.

• 1982–1987

• Between 1982 and 1987 focus was directed towards timber price adjustment and forest policy analysis. Work also involved stabilizing tenure in mountain and forest lands, determining ownership in hilly lands and defining forest production responsibilities. From 1 January 1982, standards for withdrawing funds for forest cultivation and for state-owned and collectively owned forest areas were established. From 1985, the state’s monopoly over purchase of timber from collectively owned areas was abolished and timber markets were preliminarily opened to allow forest dwellers to negotiate sales and purchases. In addition, a nationwide afforestation campaign was initiated and the National Afforestation Committee was set up. The Forestry Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted on 1 January 1985 and by 1988, the 3rd Nationwide Forest Resource Investigation revealed that forest cover had increased to 12.98 percent. Standing timber stock was, at the same time, estimated to equal 105 720 000 m3, forest stock, 9 141 000 000 m3 and forest area, 124 652 800 hectares (State Forestry Administration Net).

• 1988–1992

• During this period forest administrative units were strengthened at all levels and a forestry administrative system was gradually developed. The enormous task of afforestation and regreening, and protecting and managing forests and wildlife resources resulted in a renaissance for forestry in China. In the early 1980s, significant achievements were made by the Three North Shelterbelt programme, including afforestation of 9 200 000 hectares and preservation of 7 333 300 hectares of forest (Forest Information Net). In May 1989, the MoF issued the Announcement on Strengthening the Administration of Forest Harvesting Licenses. As a result a coordinated nationwide licensing system for forest harvesting was enforced while in the Northeast and Inner Mongolia, timber felling quotas were issued to industrial forestry enterprises. Wildlife protection was also enforced and criminal activities such as poaching, smuggling and illegal wildlife trade were firmly checked and sternly punished. Together, these measures resulted in balance being achieved between forest growth and forest resource consumption in 1992.

• 1993–1997

• During this period, central government was fully aware of the need for afforestation, regreening and forestry development in relation to the new open door policy and economic development. Environmental rehabilitation was therefore a major goal and, in relation, illegal activities were severely punished and regulations for forest fire prevention rigorously enforced. Efficient and modern fire-fighting techniques were also adopted which resulted in better forest fire management and reduced tree loss. Otherwise the National Center for Combating Desertification was created and the state became a party to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.

• After 1993, forest stocks had grown to exceed national consumption needs and the deficit in forest resources was eliminated. In the same year, the national forest estate reached 133 333 000 hectares, total standing timber stock 117 850 000 m3, forest stock 10 137 000 000 m3 and forest cover reached 13.92 percent. By 1998, forest cover had increased to 16.55 percent.

• 1998 — present

• Public awareness of the status and functions of forestry underwent a radical change after the extraordinarily serious flooding in 1998. The public, Party committees and government departments at different levels realized the value of the services provided by forests. After the MoF was re­organized into the SFA in 1998, forestry development enjoyed its most productive years in history. For example, six major forestry programmes were initiated, investments by state and local governments increased considerably and a sense of optimism prevailed. To some extent, however, weakening of authority in some forestry departments had a negative influence.

由于林业系统从以前的单纯木材采伐收益到越来越重视林业的经济、社会和生态的综合效益，所以说目前的林业系统应该还处在转型的后期。总之，我认为国家林业局的级别不是最重要的，而是在市场经济的环境下，尽早把林业从一项公益事业逐渐转变为：发展经济用材林、果品加工、碳汇收益林、游憩价值等多种经济价值利用的产业才行。不能光靠国家给咱们林业投入，林业需要借助市场来发展壮大自己，让国家对这个事业重视。

[x]Forest Management Policies and Resource Balance in China: an Assessment of the Current Situation

• The forest deficit that characterizes China is the outcome of a long history of deforestation, which particularly intensified after the founding of the People’s Republic in 1949. Both the quantityand the quality of forest resources in China sharply decreased during the collectivization period (1958-82), notably during the Great leap forward and the Cultural Revolution1. The deforestation trend has been even further exacerbated at the beginning of the 1980s, after economic transition from a planned system to a market economy started. In particular, insecure ownership rights over trees granted to rural households have led to massive forest clearings by the contracting farmers.  

•       At the same time, China’s sustained economic growth during the reform period has led to a surge in demand for forest products, although per capita consumption of wood products remains low by international standards. The construction boom including house building in both cities and rural areas, and the rising demand for educational and cultural activities have been important factors driving the sharp increase in demand and in quality requirements for wood materials, furniture, paper and paperboard. According to non-official estimates, the national timber consumption (excluding fuelwood) rose from 145 million m3 in 1993 to 283 million m3 in 2003, with the paper sector being the largest wood consumer (32% of the total), followed by construction and housing (22%), rural energy  consumption (21%) and furniture (11%) (Xiong 2004, Zhu 2004). With further increases in income, most of these uses are expected to rise in the future.

•      Facing the ecological consequences of forest overexploitation and the growing pressure from the demand side, the Chinese government has radically reoriented its forest policy during the past 20 years by moving from a timber production strategy to a strategy of resource and ecosystem conservation and restoration. These efforts are believed to have successfully contributed to an increase in both China’s forest area and timber stock by the beginning of the 1990s (Table 1). Most recently, the national forest policy has been further shifted towards conservation with the launching of Six National Key Forest Programs from the end of the 1990s, which aim at restoring, conserving,  expanding and commercially developing China’s forests, especially in ecologically sensitive areassuch as Yangtze and Yellow Rivers’ areas in the western region.

[x]八大沙漠，七大流域，六项林业生态工程，四大沙地（四有型小流域/生态清洁，生态景观，生态经济，生态安全）。以小流域或片区为单元，山水田林路草统一规划，风沙旱涝碱综合治理。

[x]六项重要林业计划：

1）	天然林保护计划。	1998年试点开始
2）	退耕还林计划。	该工程于1999年首先在陕西、甘肃、四川3省试点，2000年3月推向长 江上游和黄河上中游地区，试点工作正式启动；2001年3月该工程被正式列入 《中华人民共和国国民经济和社会发展第十个五年计划纲要》，2002年退耕还林 工程全面启动。
3）	北京和天津附近地区的防沙治沙计划。
4）	三北防护林开发计划和长江流域的防护林发展计划。	1978年11月25日，国务院以国发（1978）244号文件批准国家林业总局《关于在西北、华北、东北风沙危害和水土流失重点地区建设大型防护林的规划》，至此，三北防护林工程正式启动实施。
5）	野生动物保护和自然保护区发展计划。
6）	重点地区的林业产业基地发展计划，重点是快速生长和高产的人工林。

[x] 环境库兹涅特曲线： 库兹涅茨曲线是上世纪50年代诺贝尔奖获得者、经济学家库兹涅茨用来分析人均收入水平与分配公平程度之间关系的一种学说。研究表明，收入不均现象随着经济增长先升后降，呈现倒U型曲线关系。当一个国家经济发展水平较低的时候，环境污染的程度较轻，但是随着人均收入的增加，环境污染由低趋高，环境恶化程度随经济的增长而加剧；当经济发展达到一定水平后，也就是说，到达某个临界点或称“拐点”以后，随着人均收入的进一步增加，环境污染又由高趋低，其环境污染的程度逐渐减缓，环境质量逐渐得到改善，这种现象被称为环境库兹涅茨曲线。

[x] Water yield reduction due to afforestation is estimated between 50% in the semi-arid North to 30% in the tropical South; these numbers must be integrated into future afforestation plans (Yang et al. 2010).