Thanks to Paul, we have systematically learned how to write in English. This article is based on the note taken in “PhD Reading & Writing Course”. We would like to share with you and hope this guide has been of some use to you.
Sentences
句子的构成：a subject，a predicate（谓语），a complete thought.
punctuation mark标点符号
Use quotation marks（引号）“ ” for direct speech.
Ellipsis（省略号）
Commas（逗号）
Apostrophes（撇号）
练习：
When I bumped into Mary againlast week, I was really taken aback–she had shaved her head!
“You’re bald!” I said.
“So what?” she replied, “a famous author once said: ‘My head must be cool or I can’t write.’”
I laughed and responded with: “Clear thoughts flow from a cool stream of consciousness .…”(Thomas Mathison, Literary Expression[London:Universal Press, 1989]).
Such was the start to the latest episode of our on/off relationship;the banter continued in a jocular way.
Commas, Apostrophes & Articles 逗号、撇号和冠词
The（定冠词）is used to refer to specific or particular nouns;a/an（不定冠词）is used to modify non-specific or non-particular nouns.
Varying Our Sentence Structures
1．Compound Sentences复合句
1.a semicolon分号
2.acoordinating conjunction并列连词：For And Nor But Or Yet So
3.a transition
2.Complex Sentences复杂句
一个独立句+一个非独立句或从句，若非独立句子在前，则加逗号
subordinating conjunctions从属连词：because, until, when
There are 6 main rulesfor using commas.
1) They punctuate linked main clauses
Example:This is the first use of the comma, and it is a simple convention to grasp.
2) They make the introductory part of a sentence more noticeable (i.e. they set it off)
Examples: In the course of the twentieth century, cinematic techniques developed considerably.
Ultimately,the earth’s oil supplies will run out.
3) They separate an additional, or subordinate, clause at the end of a sentence
Example:The rain began to come down heavily, which meant I was soon wet through.
4) They separate subordinating and parenthetical elements within a sentence
Examples:It is, of course, necessary to examine the situation in more detail.
The nature of matter, for so long the subject of scientific enquiry, is now becoming better understood.
5) They are used where a phrase, or noun, renames another noun (apposition)
Example:Victoria Beckham, David’s wife, was one of the guests.
6) They are placed between items in a series, and between two or more adjectives that equally modify the same word
Examples: Indeed to buy tea, rice, bread, and butter.
She washed her long, blonde hair.
writing effective sentences
Word order and clarity
Modifier修饰。修饰词放置的对否影响句子表达的意思
misplaced modifier
·Misplaced:Professor Adam Smith will discuss the latest appearance of Halley’s comet in room 104.
·Correct:Professor Adam Smith will discuss, in room 104, the latest appearance of Halley’s comet.
·The lost child was finally found wandering in a frozen farmer’s field.
·The lost child was finally found wandering in a farmer’s frozen field.
In some sentences the word being modified has not even been written. We call this a “dangling modifier”, as the following example shows.
·Dangling:Waving farewell, the plane began to take off.
·Correct:Waving farewell,we watched as the plane took off.
Having tucked the children into bed, the cat was put out for the night.
Having tucked the children into bed,the parents put the cat out for the night.
Make a specific point in each statement
Instead of writing:
There are many kinds of beautiful tropical fish. The kind most popular with aquarium owners is the angelfish.
Combine the two sentences:
Of the many kinds of beautiful tropical fish, the angelfish is the most popular with aquarium owners.
·D.W. Griffith introduced many new cinematic techniques. Some of these techniques were contrast editing, close-ups, fade-outs, and freeze-frame shots.
·D.W. Griffiths introduced many new cinematic techniques, such as contrast editing, close-ups, fade-outs, and freeze-frame shots.
specific detail
·Instead of writing: My neighbour bought a really nice desk.
·Write:My neighbour bought a solid-oak desk that contains a secret drawer triggered by a hidden spring.
Use pronouns in a consistent way
I like my photography class because we learn how to restore our old photos and how to take better color portraits of your family.
I like my photography class because I’m learning how to restore my old photos and how to take better color portraits of my family.
Be concise
The following examples contain unnecessary words
1）the reason Bob drove a hundred kilometers to a new restaurant was because it was serving his favourite dish, noodle delight.
2)Because of the fact that his computer business failed after only a month, Jim decided to leave Shenzhen.
3)There are thirty five PhD students attending this class.
4)She seems to be upset.
5)The producer fired the wife of the director of the movie.
Should be:The producer fired the movie director’s wife.
Passive verb: The wedding date was announced by the couple.
Active verb: The couple announced their wedding date.
Redundancies冗余
·She thought his moon rock necklaces were really very unique.
·The group consensus of opinion was that the pie crust tasted like cardboard.
writing correct sentences
1）Fix sentence fragments修复句子片段
Incorrect: Jack Todd, the legendary footballer, never trained for a match. Just turned up on a Saturday and scored goals.
Correct: Jack Todd, the legendary footballer, never trained for a match. He just turned up on a Saturday and scored goals.
Incorrect:I didn’t realize how special my parents were.Until I became an adult.
Correct:I didn’t realize how special my parents were until I became an adult.
2）Avoid run-ons避免粘连句
Incorrect: The indicted police chief submitted her resignation the mayor accepted it gratefully.
Correct: The indicted police chief submitted her resignation. The mayor accepted it gratefully.
Correct: The indicted police chief submitted her resignation; the mayor accepted it gratefully.
Correct: The indicted police chief submitted her resignation, and the mayor accepted it gratefully.
Correct: When the indicted police chief submitted her resignation, the mayor accepted it gratefully.
Trying to correct a run-on with only a comma and without a coordinating conjunction,produces an error called a comma splice.
Incorrect:Victoria Woodhull was the first American woman to run for the presidency she was defeated in 1872 by Ulysses S.Grant.
Incorrect:Victoria Woodhull was the first American woman to run for the presidency, she was defeated in 1872 by Ulysses S. Grant.
3）Avoid Faulty parallelism避免错误的排比
In her stage show she sang,danced and juggled.
He ran out of the door,up the path, and into a car.
Faulty:Whether working on his oily car,fist fighting at the hamburger stand, or in bed,my brother always keeps his hair combed.
Correct:Whether working on his oily car,fist fighting at the hamburger stand,or lounging in bed, my brother always keeps his hair combed.
Faulty:Boa constrictors like to lie in the sun,to hang from tree branches, and swallowing small animals.
Correct: Boa constrictors like to lie in the sun,to hang from tree branches, and to swallow small animals.
4）Avoid false predication避免错误的断定
Make sure the predicate properly fits the subject.
Faulty: Energy is one of the world’s biggest problems.
Correct: The lack of fuel for energy is one of the world’s biggest problems.
Faulty: Financial aid is a growing problem for many university students.
Correct: University students are finding it harder to obtain financial aid.
The/Alack of financial aid is a growing problem for many university students.
Insufficient/Inadequate financial aid is a growing problem for many university students.
Faulty: True failure is when you make an error and don’t learn anything from it.*
Correct: You have truly failed only when you make an error and don’t learn anything from it.
* Avoid all “is when” and “is where” constructions. The subject does not refer to a time, so the predicate is faulty.
Make comparisons complete
Unclear: She likes Jim better than Tom.
Clear:She likes Jim better than Tom does.
Unclear: The rooms in this apartment are bigger than that house.
Clear:The rooms in this apartment are bigger than the ones in that house.
Each sentence you write should be clear and easily understood
A summary of effective sentence writing
Effective sentences are:clear, coherent,concise and correct. easy to understand.interesting to read as they are varied and contain specific detail.
They do not contain any errors,such as:
·unnecessary shifts
·misplaced modifiers
·dangling modifiers
·faulty pronoun referencing
·redundancies
·fragments
·run-ons
·faulty parallelism
·false predication
·faulty comparisons
to be continued.. 格式不友好，需要调整的太多，还有11页word呢。。