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1->>>>> Intro
如果我们想描述 理解并解释甚至影响创新的过程,那么我们需要考虑到所有重要的影响因素,也是创新系统研究的主要目的。了解这类系统的结构以及动态变化对于创新过程的建设思考是十分必要的。
注:出现的”作者“指的是system of innovation 的作者。
Various systems of innovation approaches
首先是 'national system of innovation'这个词的由来,据christopher freeman 1995说,第一个用这个词的是lundvall 在Dosi et al.(1988). 不过从出版的正式版来看,这个expression是由freeman自己在他关于 日本的科技政策以及经济表现 一书中使用的。
90年代初期两个重要的关于国家创新系统的是由 Lundvall 1992 和 Richard Nelson 1993 edit 的。此外还有Carlsson的科技创新系统, Annalee Saxenian 对硅谷等,Alfred Marshall 对工业园区 以及Cooke 1996 等对 区域创新系统的整理研究。
尽管创新系统严格来说不算formal和established theory,它的发展受到各种创新理论比如 interactive learning 以及 evolutionary theories 演化理论 的影响。
演化理论的核心其实就是 variation的创造形成 (introduce novelties in the system) 以及 selection mechanism. Nelson 和 Winter 1982 介绍了相关的概念,并且提出了三大基石:organization routines, search behavior, and selection environment.
关于evolution theories. Nelson 是这样说的: Technical change clearly is an evolutionary process; the innovation generator keeps on producing entities superior to those earlier in existence, and adjustment forces work slowly. 1987:16. (不过作者说Nelson这本书里并没有很清晰地点出evolutionary theory, 不过因为Nelson在随后地很多文章里提到 这个理论视角 所以也可以说 Nelson version of the system of innovation is implicitly based on an evolutionary theory of innovationo) 相比之下,Carlsson approach 就是直接点名时chosen an evolutionary theory
Concept of system of innovation
Freeman 1987. 'networks of institutions in the public and private sectors whose activities and interactions initiate, import, modify, and diffuse new technologies' 在他描述日本创新系统时 他着重提了四个方面:国际贸易工业部,公司R&D(特别是进口技术),教育与训练,工业联合结构 的角色。
Lundvall 1992. 扩大了范围:'all parts and aspects of the economic structure and the institutional set-up affecting learning as well as search and exploring - the production system, the marketing system, and the system of finance present themselves as subsystems in which learning takes place.' 同时他强调 应该确定子系统以及social institutions在系统研究中是否应该包含还是不予考虑,which is 'a definition of system of innovation must be kept open and flexible regarding which subsystems should be included and which processes should be studied.'
Carlsson and Stankiewicz. A technological system is "a network of agents interacting in a specific economic/industrial area under a particular institutional infrastructure or set of infrastructures and involved in the generation, diffustion and utilization of technology (1995, italics in original)
在这些系统论当中,创新的定义自然会影响各学者们研究的角度及范围。总体而言,这个领域研究的主要对象是科技 technological innovation,而同时都对 organizational 以及 institutional innovation 都有兴趣 (希望可以看一下提到的这些人的书啦,以及 schumpeter 的innovation,和 nelson and rosenberg 的定义)
而同时 对 系统 的定义也会影响着方法的选择。SI的系统性特征意味着可能可以采取线性的角度来研究科技变化 (也就是 R&D打头,然后是创新,扩散,生产力增长)。对于一SI来说,作者结合了Carlson的 (SI is consciously built by the state, 1992) 以及 Nelson and Rosenberg的(work together does not necessarity smoothly and coherently), 提出 一些SI的元素可以是由一些actors 有意识地设计地,同时另一些可以是通过自主进化而来的。再一次强调的是,这个系统的边界 定义 很重要,到底哪些该被考虑,哪些institution 或者 工业结构应该被研究,又怎么去处理那些模糊的,跨边缘的 科技系统。而在上述提到的这几本书中,对边界的定义都非常模糊(不过这似乎也是系统科学中的一个通病)。
作者提出的一种确定 system的方法是:定义要研究什么 innovation,然后是找出影响这些innovations的因素(economic, social, political, organizational, institutional, and other factors),于是根据这些来确定系统的limits, specify the extents. 那很显然这又是一个 catch 22的问题,因为你得去找这些影响因子
Common characteristics of the systems of innovation approaches: advantages and problems (九个)
Innovations and learning at the center. 跟科技进步被当成exogenous actor不同,knowledge 和 innovation 被看作 fundamental source (Lundvall 1992)
Holistic and interdisciplinary.
其一是SI不只是关注在R&D系统。
其二是SI的知识横跨了经济 institutional organizational social and political 的知识。
其三是SI可以提供一种结构性的以及actor-oriented 的视角(就此可以阅读Anthony Giddens的structuration theory 或者McKelvey 1991 )A historical perspective is natural.
从一项科学发明到商业成熟的创新往往有着一定的时间差,同时它所带来的影响也可以是广泛且深远的。
在很多国家的例子中, 历史因素都会被着重的考虑。由于路径依赖,创新 institutions 以及 organizations的演化 都是一个需要仔细观察的方面Differences between systems and non-optimally. 这些差异包括:
structure of production (比如你国原材料based 他国knowledge intensive);
performance in terms of technology development and diffusion;
同时SI里的elements也可以不同(比如研究机构 company-based research 以及大学 对R&D 系统的重要性都不大一样 或者A在你国的功能在其他国家是由B完成的 P.S. 而这些对于最终这个系统的知识可交换性以及其他actors的数据获得程度有着很大的影响)。
因为通常我们很难去定义 一个SI的好坏 成功或失败与否 (毕竟它是一个基于演化理论的 Open ended and path dependent的系统),所以很多情况下,对比研究就会很常见了。
通过对比,可以产生基于某些变量的更优解 也可以识别出一下问题。这也就是类似于企业研究中的benchmarking了。Emphasis on interdependence and non-linearity.
这里强调的是elements之间的联系。
由于这些关系现实往往十分复杂 reciprocity, interactivity, and feedback mechanisms in several loops, 故而不大会是线性关系。
而为了去捕捉这些关系,需要对这个相关概念以及指标的进一步量化研究。我们需要更多地思考怎么确定一个SI里的central actors, 如何去衡量他们的相对重要/影响程度,他们之间的关系究竟是什么,尤其需要了解这个系统的 interdepence and connectivity. 同时也得考虑 这些组成元素 的devision of labor, 谁产生了哪种knowledge以及 why
在这种思考下,demand 被代入到SI中当作 determine of innovation (更多可参照 Lundvall 以及 Porter 1990). 与之相对应,传统的一种 determinant of innovation 强调 从一种需求视角的创新政策工具(比如提供更多的R&D经费),而从demand side的话,laws, taxes, regulations, subsidies,government procurement 那些可能会影响 diffusion of technologies (比如影响选择)Encompasses product technologies and organizational innovations
包括product 的理由:工业R&D投入了很多在新/更好产品的开发上;产品创新大概是影响经济结构变化的主要机制;相比于process innovation, 更能推动经济的发展
包括organization的理由:organization change生产力及竞争力的增长的可能重大来源(也会影响employment);它和科技变化紧密联系并且常常为后者提供可能性;所有的科技目前是由人类创造的 社会是 socially shaped 且需要某种组织结构维持。Institutions are central 敲重点!
创新work里institutions是大头,但各家的定义可能不尽相同。以下是基于他们90年代的说法。
对于 Carlsson and Stankiewicz, 'both rules or laws determining behavior and organizational structures'
对于 Nelson and Rosenberg, 大概就是各类机构,比如 universities, labs, 尽管也包含了 technology policies
对于Lundvall,' may regard technological trajectories and paradigms, which focus the innovative activities of scientists, engineers, and technicians, as one special kind of institution.
综上,institutions大概有两层含义。一是 things that pattern behaviors like norms, rules, and laws, 二就是 formal structures with an explicit purpose (organizations)Conceptually diffuse
即 conceptual ambiguity 及 conceptual 'pluralism' 也就是说这个领域还没咋成型 需要大家多多探索Conceptual frameworks rather than formal theories
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PART I Overview and basic concepts
1>>> Institutions and organizations in SI
Concepts of institution, organization, and market
a. 经济学的角度
那其实很多都是从经济学的角度来理解 (毕竟最后都要靠到提高生产力那一堆)那复习一遍 经济学主要有三大part:马克思主义,制度经济学(比较非主流),以及新古典(相对主流)。基本上都是从一些行为模式以及ground truth 来讨论, 换来换去都是在定义 rules of game 是个什么东西
Neoclassical economics.
经济学研究的本质是人类的行为 而在新古典中,讲究供求效用 利润最大化 有一个外部的给定的人口 科技 偏好等 有一组参数化的价格
- Thorstein Veblen, 被认为是American Institutionalism的创始人以及组合了”neoclassical economics" 的人。他认为 institutions are an outgrowth of habit (Veblen, 1919:239,241).
- 同时 John Commons 认为是'collective action in control, liberation, and expansion of individual action.'
- 又 一个 coin 了制度经济学的人 Walton Hale Hamilton: It connotes a way of thought or action of some prevalence and permanence, which is embedded in the habits of a group or the customs of a people. In ordinary speech it is another word for procedure, convention or arrangement; in the language of books it is the singular of which mores or the folkways are the plural. Institutions fix the confines of and impose forms upon the activities of human beings. The world of use and won't, to which imperfectly we accommodate our lives, is a tangled and unbroken web of institutions. (Hamilton, 1932)
Transaction cost economics
- Williamson analyzed the relationship between the transaction costs and organizational forms (企业以及市场两个level)他认为institutional 的 set up是影响交易成本的关键因素 进而影响企业以及市场的组织 但他并没有对institutions做出清晰的定义
- Douglass North (主要贡献在于创立了包括产权理论property rights、国家理论state和意识形态理论ideology在内的“制度变迁理论”):
"Institutions are the rules of the game in society or more formally. are the humanly devised constraints that shape human interaction. In consequence they structure incentives in human exchange. whether political, social or economic. Institutional change shapes the way societies evolve through time and hence is the key to understanding historical change. (North 1990: 3)"
"Institutions are the humanly devised constraints that structure political, economic and social interaction. They consist of both informal constraints (sanctions, taboos, customs, traditions, and codes of conduct), and formal rules (constitutions, laws, property rights)". (North, 1991: 97)
Game theory
- Organizers of information.
在总结完这么多后,作者终于提出了自己的point:Institutions are sets of common habits, routines, established practices, rules, or laws that regulate the relations and
interactions between individuals and groups. 又有individual 又考虑了collective 也考虑了实际中可能影响行为和联系的限制因素
b. Institution and organization (真的我都不知道institution中文怎么翻译)
对于Organizations:
Organizations are, according to North, partly formed by the institutional framework and are, at the same time, vehicles for their change; the players follow the rules but they also influence them.
In the context of innovation studies it is particularly important to note that firms, universities, and schools are considered to be organizations - since they are important engines of technical change.
在这本书中 需要对这两个进行区分 因为ta们很大程度上扮演着不同的功能 同时又有紧密的联系,一般来说 organizations 是由于某种特定的原因而形成的架构,ta们是行动者 或者 参与者;而institution 可以是在某种环境下自行发展的而并没有一个特定的目的 (organizations are formal structures with an explicit purpose and they are consciously created. They are players or actors. In contrast, institutions may develop spontaneously and are often not characterized by a specific purpose.
c. Institutions and market
简而言之就是institution这个概念被用来理解市场是怎么 facilitate and organize exchenge的。
Taxonomies of institutions
有几个很重要的区别
1) Formal and informal 这种可以用在比较不同的创新系统:
- Formal. more 'visible', are codified. 包括 (laws, e.g., patent laws, government regulations of bank conduct, formal instructions for officials of a technological service system, regulations and instructions for installation of electrical equipment, etc.)
- Informal. 间接地从人类和organization的行为中被观察到。(common law, customs, traditions, work norms, norms of cooperation, conventions, practices, etc.)
2) Basic and supporting
- Basic. 就比如一些基本的ground rules像劳工法
- supporting. define and specify certain aspects of the basic rules. 比如对troduce novelties in the system) 以及 selection mechanism. Nelson 和 Winter 1982 介绍了相关的概念,并且提出了三大基石:organization routines, search behavior, and selection environment.
关于evolution theories. Nelson 是这样说的: Technical change clearly is an evolutionary process; the innovation generator keeps on producing entities superior to those earlier in existence, and adjustment forces work slowly. 1987:16. (不过作者说Nelson这本书里并没有很清晰地点出evolutionary theory, 不过因为Nelson在随后地很多文章里提到 这个理论视角 所以也可以说 Nelson version of the system of innovation is implicitly based on an evolutionary theory of innovationo) 相比之下,Carlsson approach 就是直接点名时chosen an evolutionary theory