【托福】语法基础

中文和英文的本质区别

中文意合，英文形合

中文：主谓宾；修饰主语，修饰宾语；很少连接词，通过句子之间的内含的意思连接
中文和英文的本质区别：英文有很多的连接词，逻辑词

Hypotaxis: 形合

The dependent or subordinate construction or relationship of clauses with connectives
通过连词将相互依赖或次一级的或关系的从句连接起来

Parataxis：意合

The juxtaposition of clauses or phrases without the use of coordinating or subordinating conjunctions
没有连接词的并列的从句或者短语

长难句：看逻辑词

名词短语的构造——左二右六

限定词+形容词+中心名词（headword）+六类右置定语：介词短语、分词短语、不定式短语、形容词短语、定语从句、同位语从句

英文：中心词在左，修饰全部在右边
中文：中心词在右

在语言学上，汉语被称作是“中心词”（head）在后的语言（head-last language）
英语被称作是“中心词在前”的语言（head-first language），因此，总体来说，英语和汉语的语序差不多是刚好反过来的

The boy is my brother. 主+系+表
The cute boy is my brother.
The cute boy in blue jeans is my brother. 介词短语做后置定语
The cute boy wearing nothing is my brother. 分词短语做后置定语
The cute boy to do what he likes is my brother. 不定式短语做后置定语
The cute boy smart enough is my brother. 形容词短语做后置定语
The cute boy who can speak perfect English is my brother. 定语从句做后置短语
The suspicion that the cute boy is his brother is true. 同位语从句

阅读实战举例SAT

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

1. 练习1

Fortune 500 companies actually dole out big fees to comedy consultants who offer humor seminars and improvisational workshops all in the name of improved productivity.
难词注解：dole out 发放
参考译文：事实上，财富500强的公司以提高生产力的名义，向开展幽默讨论会和即兴训练的喜剧顾问发放经费

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

2. 练习2

One can as easily become a chemist or a neuroanatomist because of where one went to school or whose influence one happened to come under as because of a compelling early response to the logic of chemistry or the beauty of the human nervous system.

难词注解：
neuroanatomist 神经解剖学家
Compelling 强制的
参考译文：正如化学机理和人类神经系统的完美能激发人早期自发的反应一样，人同样容易受到上学的地点和某人人士的影响，从而成为化学家或神经解剖学家

阅读实战举例TOEFL

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

3. 练习3

But these factors do not account for the interesting question of how there came to be such a concentration of pregnant ichthyosaurs in a particular place very close to their time of giving birth.
难词注解：
ichthyosaurs 玉龙
of 结构做定语
参考译文：但这些因素并不能解释这个有趣的问题：为何在一个特定的地点会如此集中地出现即将临产的怀孕鱼龙群

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

4. 练习4

A series of mechanical improvements continuing well into the nineteenth century, including the introduction of pedals to sustain tone or to soften it, the perfection of a metal frame and steel wire of the finest quality, finally produced an instrument capable of myriad tonal effects from the most delicate harmonies to an almost orchestral fullness of sound, from a liquid, singing tone to sharp, percussive brilliance.
参考译文：
基于持续到19世纪的一系列机械上的改进，包括引入踏板以维持音调或使它柔和，再有金属框架的改善，以及使用最佳性能的钢丝，最终产生了能弹奏出种种音调效果的乐器——这些效果涵盖了从最精致的和声到几乎全部的管弦乐音响，从明快流畅的吟唱音调到尖锐的打击乐器的恢弘气氛
最终之前：长主语

阅读实战举例GRE

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

5. 练习5

Hydrogeology is a science dealing with the properties, distribution, and circulation of water on the surface of the land, in the soil and underlying rocks, and in the atmosphere. The hydrologic cycle, a major topic in this science, is the complete cycle of phenomena through which water passes, beginning as atmospheric water vapor, passing into liquid and solid form as precipitation, thence along and into the ground surface, and finally again returning to the form of atmospheric water vapor by means of evaporation and transpiration.
参考译文：
水文地质学是一门科学，研究在陆地表面、在土壤里面以及在岩石底下的谁的性质、分布和循环。水文地质循环，一个主要的课题，是一个水流经的完整的循环现象，从水蒸气开始，变成液态水以及凝固成冰；落在陆地表面，并且最终再次通过蒸发回到水蒸气的形式

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

6. 练习6

Traditionally, pollination by wind has been viewed as a reproductive process marked by random events in which the vagaries of the wind are compensated for by the generation of quantities of pollen, so that the ultimate production of new seeds assured at the expense of producing much more pollen than is actually used.
参考译文：传统认为授粉是一个再生殖过的过程并有如下几个特点：风授的随机性由产生大量的花粉、以消耗比实际需要的多得多的花粉为代价来弥补风授的不确定性，以保证生殖的延续。

阅读实战举例GMAT

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

7. 练习7

As families move away from their stable community, their friends of many years, their extended family relationships, the informal flow of information is cut off; and with it the confidence that information will be available when needed and will be trustworthy and reliable.

参考译文：
随着家庭离开他们原来稳定的设取，离开他们多年的亲友和扩展的家庭关系，非正式的信息流动被切断了，随之而去的是对在需要时能获得可靠和值得信赖的信息的信心

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

8. 练习8

The individual now has more information available than any generation, and the task of finding that one piece of information relevant to his or her specific problem is complicated, time-consuming, and sometimes even overwhelming.
参考译文：
个人现在比任何一代人都有更多的可用信息，而寻找与他或她的具体问题相关的一条信息的任务是复杂、耗时的，有时甚至是压倒性的。

名词性从句

问题一：什么是名词性从句？
要搞清楚这个问题，首先要搞清楚：
名词和名词短语可以作什么句子成分?
答案：主、宾、表、同
名词短语的构词法：左二右六

在复合句中起名词作用的从句叫名词从句（Noun Clauses）。
名词从句的功能相当于名词词组，它在复合句中能担任主语、宾语、表语、同位语，
因此根据它在句中不同的语法功能，名词从句又可分别称为主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句

名词性从句在功能上相当于名词：
作主语：
His job is important.
What he does is important.

作表语：
This is his job.
This is what he does every day.

作宾语：
I don’t like his job.
I don’t like what he does every day.

作同位语：
I don’t know about the man, Mr. White.
I don’t know about the fact that he is a teacher.

判断that 引导的是定语从句还是同位语从句：
引导的部分充当什么成分。
that不充当任何成分的话就是同位语从句
that 充当主语\宾语就是定语从句

如果把句子当作名词来用，分别去充当另一句话的主、宾、表、同。
便构成了主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从。即名词性从句

名词性从句——主、宾、表、同

问题二：已知原来一个句子去充当另一个句子的四种成分时就构成了名词性从句，但是问题是哪些句子可以去充当这四种成分？
答案：三种句子充当四种成分

陈述句 , 一般疑问句, 特殊疑问句

一、陈述句作句子成分
要在陈述句句首加上that

That+陈述句 这一结构分别从当一个句子的主语、宾语、表语和同位语的四种成分

陈述句：
English is important.
名词性从句：
That English is important is an undoubted fact. 主语从句
I’ve learned that English is important. 宾语从句
My idea is that English is important. 表语从句
That fact that English is important is correct. 同位语从句

二、 一般疑问句作句子成分
1） 用whether或if引导
2） If 还是whether？
If 一般只用于引导宾语从句，而whether可引导包括宾语从句在内的其他名词从句
为什么if只用于引导宾语从句：
如果放在主语，可能会引起歧义（如果）

一般疑问句：
Will he come to my party?
名词性从句：
Whether he will come to my party makes no difference to me. 主语从句
I don’t know if/whether he will come to my party. 宾语从句
My question is whether he will come to my party. 表语从句
We have argued over the question whether he will come to my party. 同位语从句

三、 特殊疑问句作句子成分

变倒装语序为陈述语序

特殊疑问句：
Why did dinosaurs become extinct?
名词性从句：
Why dinosaurs become extinct is still a mystery. 主语从句
I don’t know why dinosaurs become extinct. 宾语从句
That is why dinosaurs become extinct. 表语从句
We got the reason why dinosaurs become extinct. 同位语从句

四、名词性从句的引导词总结

名词从句的引导词	对应的简单句类型	引导词是否作成分	引导词是否可以省略
连接that	对应于陈述句	That在从句中既不作成分，也没有实义	在不影响句子意思的情况下，宾语从句中的that可以省略
连接whether和if	对应于一般疑问句	Whether和if 在从句中不做成分	不能省去，因为有“是否”的含义
连接副词when, where, why 和how；连接代词：who, whom, what, which 和whose	对应于特殊疑问句	When, where, why 和how在从句中作状语，不作成分；who, whom和what作主语、宾语或表语；which 和whose作定语，后面接名词连用	不能省去，因为既作成分，又有意义

阅读实战举例

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

9. 练习9

Great comic artists assume that truth may bear all lights, and thus they seek to accentuate contradictions in social action, not gloss over or transcend them by appeals to extra-social symbols of divine ends, cosmic purpose, or laws of nature. The moment of transcendence in great comic art is a social moment, born out of the conviction that we are human, even though we try to be gods.
that: 宾语从句
that: 同位语从句

参考译文：
伟大的漫画艺术家认为真理可能具有所有的光芒，因此他们试图强调社会行动中的矛盾，而不是通过诉诸神圣目的、宇宙目的或自然法则的超社会象征来掩盖或超越它们。伟大漫画艺术中的超越时刻是一个社会时刻，源于我们是人的信念，尽管我们试图成为神。

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

10. 练习10

It is argued that the sex ratio will evolve so as to maximize the number of meetings between individuals of the opposite sex. This is essentially a group selection argument. The other, and in my view correct, type of answer was first put forward by Fisher in 1930. This “genetic” argument starts from the assumption that genes can influence the relative numbers of male and female offspring produced by a individual carrying the genes.
that: 主语从句
that: 同位语从句
参考译文：
有人认为，性别比例会不断演变，以最大限度地增加异性之间的会面次数。这本质上是一个组选择参数。另一种答案，在我看来是正确的，是费舍尔在1930年首次提出的。这种“遗传”论点始于这样一种假设，即基因可以影响携带基因的个体产生的雄性和雌性后代的相对数量。

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

11. 练习11

That sex ratio will be favored which （定语从句的跳跃，修饰sex ratio）maximizes the (number of descendants an individual will have) and hence (the number of gene copies transmitted).
Suppose that the population consisted mostly of females: then an individual who produced sons only would have more grand children.
that: 主语从句
which: 定语从句
that: 宾语从句

参考译文：
这种性别比例将是有利的，这将最大限度地增加一个人的后代数量，从而最大限度地减少传播的基因拷贝数量。假设人口主要由女性组成：那么一个只生儿子的人会有更多的孙子女

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

12. 练习12

Since Fisher’s time, it has been realized that genes can sometimes influence the chromosome or gamete in which they find themselves so that gamete will be more likely to participate in fertilization. Like Fisher, Hamilton looked for an evolutionarily stable strategy, but he went a step further in recognizing that he was looking for a strategy.
that: 宾语从句
which: 定语从句（中充当状语）
that: 宾语从句

参考译文：
自费雪时代以来，人们已经意识到基因有时会影响染色体或配子，从而使配子更有可能参与受精。和费舍尔一样，汉密尔顿也在寻找一种进化上稳定的策略，但他更进一步地认识到自己正在寻找一种策略。

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

13. 练习13

Scholars do not know whether Beowulf is the sole surviving epic from a flourishing Anglo-Saxon literary period that produced other great epics or whether it was unique even in its own time.
whether: 宾语从句
that: 定语从句
whether: 宾语从句
参考译文：
学者们不知道《贝奥武夫》是否是繁荣的盎格鲁撒克逊文学时期唯一幸存的史诗，也不知道它是否在自己的时代是独一无二的。

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

14. 练习14

Normally, the constantly changing levels of animal’s activity –sleeping , feeding, moving, reproducing, metabolizing, and producing enzymes and hormones, for example –are well coordinated with environmental rhythms, but the key question is whether the animal’s schedule is driven by external cues, such as sunrise or sunset, or is instead dependent somehow on internal timers that themselves generate the observed biological rhythms
whether：表语从句
that: 宾语从句

参考译文：
通常情况下，动物活动水平的不断变化——例如睡眠、进食、移动、繁殖、新陈代谢以及产生酶和激素——与环境节奏很好地协调，但关键问题是动物的时间表是否由外部线索驱动，如日出或日落，或者以某种方式依赖于内部计时器，这些计时器本身会产生观察到的生物节律

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

15. 练习15

What the proxy records make abundantly clear is that there have been significant natural changes in the climate over timescales longer than a few thousand years.
What: 主语从句
that: 表语从句

参考译文：
代理记录非常清楚地表明，气候在几千年以上的时间尺度上发生了重大的自然变化。

形容词性从句（定语从句）

几个需要澄清的核心语法点

虚拟语气：

虚拟的时间	If从句	主句
过去	Had done/had been	Would have done
现在	Did / were	Would do
未来	Were to do / should do	Would do

通过谓语动词的变化来表达时态

过去->过去完成时
现在->现在过去时
未来->将来过去时

过去的虚拟：
If I had had time yesterday, I would have called him. (I didn’t call him.)

现在的虚拟:
If I had time, I would call you now.

将来的虚拟：
If I should have time, I would call you.
If I were to have time tomorrow, I would call you.
If I should win the lottery, I would buy Stone a house.
If it were to rain tomorrow, I would stay home.
If it rains tomorrow, I will stay home.

一、 思考一个问题：英语中修饰名词的通常是什么词？

答案：形容词

例如：Stone is an ideal boyfriend.

但是要表达一个稍微复杂一点的意思，用一个简单的形容词就不行了。
例如：我喜欢能说流利英语的男生
I like boys who can speak fluent English.

形容词从句：相当于左二右六的形容词短语

定语从句两个核心标志：

1. 先行词（名词；短语；句子）：被定语从句修饰的对象
2. 关系词（代词；副词；）

二、 关系代词在定语从句充当的成分

主语、宾语
关系代词在被修饰的成分之间是一种主谓关系
1） 主语
一个简单句如何变为定语从句：
I like guys and they have a good sense of humor.
I like guys who have good sense of humor.
2) 宾语
I’d really like to find a friend and I can trust him completely.
I’d really like to find a friend who I can trust completely.

主要关系代词：that, which, who

关系代词总结：充当两种成分
主语或宾语
作宾语的关系代词可以省去

三、 关系词分类

两大类：关系代词和关系副词
1） 关系代词：who, whom, which, that, whose(定语)
2） 关系副词：when, where, why. 这些词起副词的作用，在定语从句里充当状态。

判断形容词性（定语从句）从和副词性从句（状态从句）：
Yesterday was a special day when Frank and River got married. 形容词性（定语从句）
River was watching blue movies when Stone came into the classroom. 副词性从句（状态从句）

1)先行词指“人”，用关系代词who或whom
Who 和whom的区别：
Who不与介词搭配使用，不说with who，而说with whom
Whom在定语从句中不能作主语，但可以作宾语或表语
A rich person is not one who has the most, but is one who needs the least.

2)表示人或物的所有关系，用whose
“whose + 名词”在从句中可作主语、动词的宾语或介词的宾语

I know a friend. His brother is a pop singer.
I know a friend whose brother is a pop singer.

3) 先行词指物，用关系代词which
Which可作从句的主语或宾语，只不过which的先行词是“物”
Which所指代的先行词除个别单词外，还可以指代短语甚至从句

I became a single mother overnight, which is nothing like becoming famous overnight.
Which引导非限定性定语从句
全句I became a single mother overnight作which的先行词

和which搭配的先行词有三种：

1. 单个单词
   Anger is a wind which blows out the lamp of mind.
2. 短语
   He likes climbing mountains, which is a good exercise.
3. 一个句子
   Tom was late, which surprised me.

4) that 人物皆可
That 指物替换which，指人替换who
Too many people spend money which they haven’t earned, to buy things which they don’t want, to impress people who they don’t like.
That替换其中的which和who
Too many people spend money that they haven’t earned, to buy things that they don’t want, to impress people that they don’t like.

That 不用在非限制性定语从句中：
That不能用于介词短语后面：
The world in which we live is made up of matter.
Which 作宾语；
或： The world which we live in is made up of matter.
或：The world that we live in is made up of matter.

5） 关系副词的用法
When, where, why ，作时间状语、地点状语和原因状语
When的用法：when 可引导限制性和非限制性定语从句，其先行词必须是表示时间的名词，如day, year或time等。
I’ll never forget the day when I met you.

Where的用法：where的先行词一般是表示地点的名词，如place和house等
This is the town where I spent my childhood.

Why的用法：只引导限制性定语从句，先行词是reason等表示原因的名词
This the reason why I didn’t come here.

四、 限制性与非限制性定语从句

限制性定语从句——不用逗号隔开，引导的词/句子与从句关系紧密，不能分开

He is man who is of value to the people.

非限制性定语从句——可以用逗号隔开，引导的词/句子与从句的关系没那么紧密，可以分开也没关系

形容词性从句和名词性从句的本质区别：
名词性从句和成分有关系（三类四分）
形容词性从句二条必备（先行词+关系词）

阅读实战举例

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

16. 练习16

The people who worked on the railroad were breaking the law. Although the escape network was never as successful or as well organized as Southerners thought, the few thousand slaves who made their way to freedom in this way each year had a symbolic significance out of proportion to their actual numbers.
who: 修饰主语
who: 修饰主语

参考译文：
在铁路上工作的人违反了法律。尽管逃亡网络从未像南方人想象的那样成功或组织良好，但每年以这种方式获得自由的几千名奴隶的象征意义与他们的实际人数不成比例。

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

17. 练习17

Wildman and Niles observed that systematic reflection on teaching required a sound ability to understand classroom events in an objective manner. They describe the initial understanding in the teachers with whom they were working as being “utilitarian…and not rich or detailed enough to drive systematic reflection”.

that: 宾语从句
whom： 形容词性从句中作宾语

参考译文：
Wildman和Niles观察到，对教学的系统反思需要以客观的方式理解课堂事件的良好能力。他们将与他们一起工作的教师最初的理解描述为“功利的……不够丰富或详细，无法推动系统的反思”。

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

18. 练习18

Since architecture was not yet a specialized profession in the colonies, the design of buildings was left either to amateur designers or to carpenters who undertook to interpret architectural manuals imported from England.

who： 形容词性从句中作主语，修饰carpenters

参考译文：
由于建筑在殖民地还不是一个专业，建筑设计要么留给业余设计师，要么留给木匠，他们负责解释从英国进口的建筑手册。

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

19. 练习19

Making an efficient icebox was not as easy as we might now suppose. In the early nineteenth century, the knowledge of the physics of heat, which was essential to a science of refrigeration, was rudimentary.

which： 非限制性定语从句，形容词性从句中作主语，修饰前面的句子

参考译文：
制造一个高效的冰箱并不像我们现在想象的那么容易。在十九世纪初，对制冷科学至关重要的热物理学知识还很初级。

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

20. 练习20

They have the skull and teeth of a reptile as well as a bony tail, but in the line–grained limestone in which these fossils occur there are delicate impressions of feathers and fine details of bone structure that make it clear that Archaeopteryx was a bird.
which : 形容词性从句中作状语
that: 名词性从句作主语
that: 名词性从句作同位语

参考译文：
它们有爬行动物的头骨和牙齿，还有一条多骨的尾巴，但在这些化石所在的线状石灰岩中，有羽毛的精细印记和骨骼结构的精细细节，这表明始祖鸟是一种鸟类。

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

21. 练习21

The function and status of ceramics in China varied from dynasty to dynasty, so they may be utilitarian, burial, trade-collectors, or even ritual objects, according to their quality and the era in which they were made. The ceramics fall into three broad types—earthenware, stoneware, and porcelain—for vessels, architectural items such as roof tiles, and modeled objects and figures. In addition, there was an important group of sculptures made for religious use, majority of which were produced in earthenware.

which: 形容词性从句中作状语
which: 形容词性从句中作主语，修饰sculptures

参考译文：
陶瓷在中国的作用和地位因朝代而异，因此根据其质量和制造年代，它们可能是实用的、埋葬的、贸易收藏家，甚至是仪式用品。陶瓷可分为三大类：陶器、石器和器皿用瓷器、建筑物品（如屋顶瓦片）以及造型物体和人物。此外，还有一组重要的宗教雕塑，其中大部分是用陶器制作的。

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

22. 练习22

Moreover, the tensions that arose within the Roman state produced literary and artistic sensibilities of the highest order. It was no accident that many leading Roman soldiers and statesmen were writers of high caliber.
that: 形容词性从句中作主语，修饰tensions
that: 名词性从句作同位语从句

参考译文：
此外，罗马国家内部出现的紧张局势产生了最高级别的文学和艺术情感。许多罗马杰出的士兵和政治家都是杰出的作家，这绝非偶然。

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

23. 练习23

One reason why preschoolers fail to comprehend the stories they hear is that they are physiologically immature.
why: 形容词性从句中作原因状语
that: 名词性从句作宾语

参考译文：
学龄前儿童无法理解他们听到的故事的一个原因是他们在生理上不成熟。

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

24. 练习24

The history of clinical nutrition, or the study of the relationship between health and how body takes in and utilizes food substances, can be divided into four distinct eras: the first began in the nineteenth century and extended into the early twentieth century when it was recognized for the first time that food contained constituents that were essential for human function and that different foods provided different amounts of these essential agents.
when： 形容词性从句中作时间状语
that: 名词性从句作宾语，it是形式主语
that 形容词性从句中作主语，修饰constituents
that：名词性从句作宾语

参考译文：
临床营养学史或对健康与身体如何吸收和利用食物物质之间关系的研究，可分为四个不同的时代：第一个时代始于19世纪，一直延续到20世纪初，当时人们首次认识到，食物中含有对人体功能至关重要的成分，不同的食物提供了不同数量的这些基本成分。

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

25. 练习25

The impact of rainfall upon the surface water and groundwater resources of the desert is greatly influenced by landforms flats and depressions where water can collect (that)are common features, but they make up only a small part of the landscape.
where: 形容词性从句中作状语

参考译文：
降雨对沙漠地表水和地下水资源的影响在很大程度上受到地形平坦和凹陷的影响，这些地形平坦和洼地是常见的特征，但它们只占景观的一小部分。

副词性从句（状语从句）

句子与句子之间的9种关系

思考一：复杂从句产生的根本原因是什么？
答案：简单词不够
思考二：怎么办？
答案：连接词

思考：状语从句与名词性从句和形容词性从句的本质区别是什么？

1. 状语从句是状语性质
2. 名词性从句是成分
3. 形容词性从句必有先行词+关系词

状语九大类：

1. 时间：when, while, until, as soon as, once, the minute, the moment, Hardly…when, scarcely … when, no sooner … than
2. 地点：where
3. 原因：because, for, as, since
4. 目的：so that, in order that, that
5. 结果：so … that, such…that
6. 条件：if, unless, as long as
7. 让步：though, although, even though, even if
8. 比较：as…as ; as + 形容词; 副词 +as; the more, the more; than
9. 方式：As, like , as if , as though, the way, by

一、 时间状语从句

1） when 短暂延续皆可
过过式：He left when I got there.
过完式：he left when I had got there.
过进式：The doorbell rang when I was telephoning.
进过式：I was telephoning when the doorbell rang.
主将从现式：I’ll speak to him when he arrives.
状语从句when前面肯定是一个动词

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

26. 练习26

When viewed from the ground, bands of threadlike cirrus cloud often seem to emerge from a single point on the western horizon and spread across the entire sky.
参考译文：
从地面上看，线状卷云带似乎经常从西方地平线上的一个点出现，并遍布整个天空。

2） while: 延续动词
The doorbell range while we were watching TV.

主语，谓语，宾语，逻辑词，修饰

27. 练习27

This is because the gaps among the origin grains are often not totally plugged with cementing chemicals; also, parts of the original grains may become dissolved by percolating groundwater, either while consolidation is taking place or at any time afterwards.
because: 原因状语
by: 方式状语
while: 时间状语

参考译文：
这是因为原始晶粒之间的间隙通常没有被胶结化学物质完全堵塞；此外，部分原始颗粒可能在固结过程中或固结后的任何时候被渗透的地下水溶解。

3） until的用法：
延续动词+until+短语：Wait until he comes back.
短语+until+短语：He didn’t leave the office until his boss came back.

4) 表示”一…就…”的结构
As soon as, once, the minute, the moment
Hardly…when, scarcely … when, no sooner … than
例：
It began to rain as soon as I arrived home.
Hardly I arrived home when it began to rain .

二、 地点状语从句

地点状语从句：where +陈述句

Stay where you are.

三、 原因状语从句

Because, for , as, since

四、 目的状语从句

So that, in order that, that
例：
I turned off the TV in order that my roommate could study in peace and quiet.

五、 结果状语从句

So…that 和 such… that

例：
The food in our school canteen is so bad that flies go there to lose weight.
He is such a good teacher that everyone likes him.

六、 条件状语从句

If, unless, as long as
例：
As long as the birds could see the sun, no matter how their surroundings were altered, they went directly to the correct food box.

七、 让步状语从句

Though, although, even though, even if

例：
Even though the paint was often sprayed on by mouth, one can assume that the dominant hand assisted in the operation.

八、 比较状语从句

1. As…as; as + 形容词; 副词 +as
   Frank is as smart as Stone.
2. Than的基本用法：
   可比性问题：Frank is taller than Stone.
3. 表示倍数比较的三种句型结构
   “倍数+比较级”结构：A is three times bigger than B
   “倍数+as … as”结构：A is three times as big as B
   “倍数+名词”结构：A is three times the size of B.
4. The more … , the more

九、 方式状语从句

As, like , as if , as though, the way, by
例：Do it the way you were taught.

复杂句产生的根本原因是：一个简单的词无法解决表达的问题

需要澄清的几个语法疑点：
思考一：food是可数名词还是不可数名词？
答案：难说
Human beings cant live without food.
These foods below are nutritious.

可数名词 vs 不可数名词
泛指：不可数名词， experience经验
具指：可数名词, experiences 经历

思考二：英文篇章是如何演变的？

1. Word
2. Word+word = sentence
3. Sentence + sentence 时就会出现问题，这个时候出现复杂句（连接词被发明）

非谓语动词的用法——不定式

非谓语：不可以作谓语的动词

1. 不定式作主语
2. 不定式作宾语
3. 不定式作补语
4. 不定式作定语
5. 不定式作状语

不定式：词性不定，除了谓语不能作，几乎可以作任何词性

思考：什么是不定式？
答案：不知道是什么词性的成分
思考：不定式有什么用？
答案：可以作句子种除谓语以外的所有成分
问题：老师你讲什么？
答案：只将不定式的浅层用法

不定式用法

1. 句首作主语
   To learn English well is significant. 不常见 10%
2. It 作形式主语（避免头重脚轻）
   It is significant to learn English well.
3. 作宾语
   I just want to make a friend with you before I die.
4. 作宾语补语
   Allow me to say three words to you.
5. 作定语
   Stone is the best man to marry.
6. 作状语
   To be or not to be, that is a question.

非谓语动词的用法——动名词

动名词是个名词

1. 动名词作主语
2. 动名词作宾语
3. 动名词作表语
4. 动名词作定语

思考：什么是动名词？
答案：动词+ing后变成的名词。所以动名词本质上是个名词

思考：动名词产生的本质是？
答案：一个句子只能由一个谓语，如果非要出现另一个谓语，形状必须变化。

动名词的用法：

1. 句首作主语
   Seeing is believing.
2. 作宾语
   I enjoy reading books.
3. 作表语
   Seeing is believing.
4. 作定语（少见，只能表用途）
   A sleeping car
   动名词和现在分词的区分：如果是主谓关系，就是分词；如果不是主谓关系，则是动名词
   A car is sleeping. 不对，不是主谓关系，所以是动名词

非谓语动词的用法——分词

分词是形容词

1. 分词作定语
2. 分词作状语
3. 分词作补语

思考：什么是分词？
答案：分词包括现在分词和过去分词，前者表主动，后者表被动
思考：现在分词和动名词有什么区别？
答案：一个形容词，一个是名词
思考：分词产生的根本原因是什么？
答案：英文中的形容词功能不够强大

十年困惑：exciting 和 excited到底什么区别
A sinking ship = a ship that is sinking. 主动进行，现在分词
A sunken ship = a ship that has sunken. 被动进行，过去分词

现在分词的意义：

1. 语态——主动
   主谓关系： the ship that is sinking
2. 时态——进行
   Falling leaves = leaves that are falling.

过去分词的意义：

1. 语态
   及物动词表被动：The broken cup = the cup was broken 80%
   不及物动词表完成：The sunken ship = the ship has sunken 20%

2. 时态
   及物动词表一般或完成：
   不及物动词表完成：

分词的用法：

1. 作状语：
   Arriving home, the door was found locked.
   所有的非谓语动词，特别是现在分词和过去分词，都可以还原成状语从句：
   When I arrived home, I found that the door was locked.
   Addressed envelope. 填了地址的信封
   判断从句中是ing还是ed：看这个从句的逻辑主语与这个动词之间的关系
   如果是主动关系：ing
   如果是被动关系：ed
2. 作补语
   Do you hear birds singing on the tree?

倒装

思考：什么是倒装？
答案：主谓颠倒
思考：英文中为什么会有倒装？
答案：

1. 语法需要 。 Are you a student?
2. 修辞需要。 Not only did the dog bark at him, but (it) bit him. 起强调作用