【北邮国院大三下】Logistics and Supply Chain Management 物流与供应链管理 Week4
北邮国院大三电商在读，随课程进行整理知识点。仅整理PPT中相对重要的知识点，内容驳杂并不做期末突击复习用。个人认为相对不重要的细小的知识点不列在其中。如有错误请指出。转载请注明出处，祝您学习愉快。
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Role of Performance Measurement
When performance is measured, performance improves.
当性能被衡量时，性能就会得到改善。
When performance is measured and reported, the rate of improvement accelerates.
当性能被测量和报告时，改进的速度就会加快。
Measurement Creates Understanding
Performance measurement systems provide insight into the nature and workings of value-added processes.
绩效测量系统提供了对增值过程的性质和运作的洞察。
A well defined performance measurement system provides feedback regarding:
一个定义良好的绩效评估系统提供以下方面的反馈:
- Customer requirements 客户需求：指客户在购买产品或服务时所期望的特性、功能和性能等方面的要求。
- Company and supplier capabilities 公司和供应商能力
- Probable success of collaborative initiatives 协作计划的可能成功
Measurement Drives Behaviour
Measurement is more critical than communication, training, or perhaps anything else when it comes to managing human behaviour.
在管理人类行为方面，衡量比沟通、培训或其他任何事情都更重要。
Measurement’s influence on behaviour is pervasive because people pay attention to how they are measured.
测量对行为的影响是普遍的，因为人们注意他们是如何被测量的。
Managers must adopt measures that truly promote collaborative behaviour.
管理者必须采取真正促进合作行为的措施。
Measurement Leads to Results
Measurement is a prerequisite for high level execution and attainment of world-class results.
测量是高水平执行和获得世界级结果的先决条件。
Well-designed measurement systems must provide accurate and relevant information in a timely manner.
设计良好的测量系统必须及时提供准确和相关的信息。
Incorrect measurement systems lead to non-aligned strategies, poor understanding, and inconsistent if not counterproductive behaviour.
不正确的测量系统导致战略不一致、理解不足以及不一致(如果不是适得其反的话)的行为。
Traditional Measurement
Areas that are essential to measure to accomplish customer service and profitability goals:
为实现客户服务和盈利目标而必须衡量的领域:
- Asset Management 资产管理
- Cost 成本
- Customer Service 客户服务
- Productivity 生产能力
- Quality 质量
Measures of Asset Management
Capital investments are made in facilities, equipment, technology, and inventory.
资本投资包括设施、设备、技术和库存。
Asset management measures give managers means to judge the efficient and effective use of capital.
资产管理措施为管理者提供了判断资金使用效率和效果的手段。
Recent advances have changed conventional wisdom with regard to asset management.
最近的进展已经改变了有关资产管理的传统观念。
- JIT/Lean
- Theory of Constraints 约束理论：一种管理和改进过程的方法，旨在识别和解决制约组织实现其目标的关键瓶颈。
可以从三个方面分析Asset Management：Sourcing，Operations，Logistics
Sourcing
- Raw material inventory levels 原材料库存水平
- Raw material 原材料
- inventory turns 库存周转：衡量企业在一定时期内销售和替换库存的速度，通常用于评估库存管理效率。
- Inventory obsolescence 呆滞库存（暂时不用或者永远没有机会使用的具有风险的库存）
- Return on Assets 资产回报率：衡量公司利用其资产产生利润的能力的财务指标，计算方法是将净利润除以总资产。
- Economic value added 经济增加值：一种衡量企业经营业绩的指标，表示企业在一定时期内创造的财富减去资本成本。
Operations
- Work in process inventory 在产品存货
- Inventory obsolescence 呆滞库存（暂时不用或者永远没有机会使用的具有风险的库存）
- Return on Assets 资产回报率：衡量公司利用其资产产生利润的能力的财务指标，计算方法是将净利润除以总资产。
- Return on Investment 投资回报：衡量投资效益的指标，用于评估投资所带来的收益与投资成本之间的关系
- Economic value added 经济增加值：一种衡量企业经营业绩的指标，表示企业在一定时期内创造的财富减去资本成本。
Logistics
- Inventory turns 库存周转：衡量企业在一定时期内销售和替换库存的速度，通常用于评估库存管理效率。
- Inventory obsolescence 呆滞库存（暂时不用或者永远没有机会使用的具有风险的库存）
- Return on Assets 资产回报率：衡量公司利用其资产产生利润的能力的财务指标，计算方法是将净利润除以总资产。
- Inventory days supply 可供应存货天数
- Economic value added 经济增加值：一种衡量企业经营业绩的指标，表示企业在一定时期内创造的财富减去资本成本。
Measures of Cost
Cost performance is critical and tracked more carefully and comprehensively than any other aspect of competitive performance.
成本绩效是至关重要的，比竞争绩效的任何其他方面都更仔细、更全面地加以跟踪。
Cost-cutting cannot be done at the expense of core capabilities.
削减成本不能以牺牲核心能力为代价。
Best practice requires companies to identify activities that most impact total cost, adopt appropriate metrics, and manage to those metrics.
最佳实践要求公司识别对总成本影响最大的活动，采用适当的度量标准，并对这些度量标准进行管理。
也从Sourcing，Operations，Logistics来分析
Sourcing
- Unit price 单价：指某种商品或服务的每单位价格。
- Acquisition cost 收购成本：在购买资产或服务时所支付的总成本，包括购买价格、运输费用、安装费用等。
- Total cost of ownership 总拥有成本：衡量购买、拥有和维护某项资产或产品的全部费用的度量。它包括直接成本（如购买价格）和间接成本（如维护、升级和运营成本）。
- Cost as a percent of sales 成本占销售额的百分比
- Administrative 行政管理
Operations
- Direct labour costs 直接劳工成本
- Manufacturing overhead 制造费用：指生产过程中除直接材料和直接劳动力之外的其他生产成本，如工厂管理费用、设备折旧费用等。
- Costs per unit 单位成本
- Inventory carrying cost 库存持有成本：指企业为存储、管理和维护库存所产生的成本，包括仓储费用、保险费用、损耗费用等。
- Warranty costs 保修成本
Logistics
- Inventory carrying cost 库存持有成本：指企业为存储、管理和维护库存所产生的成本，包括仓储费用、保险费用、损耗费用等。
- Total landed cost 总到岸成本
- Outbound freight 出库运费：指从发货地运输货物到目的地的运费。
- Warehousing labour costs 仓储人工费
- Administrative 行政管理
Measures of Customer Service
Customer service metrics measure the ability of the firm to produce the right quantity of product and deliver when and where it is needed.
客户服务指标衡量公司生产适当数量的产品并在需要的时间和地点交付产品的能力。
Time metrics are used as benchmarks for flexibility and responsiveness.
时间指标被用作灵活性和响应性的基准。
Customer complaints are also tracked.
客户投诉也会被跟踪。
也是从Sourcing，Operations，Logistics三方面分析
Sourcing
- On-time delivery 准时交货：指货物或服务在规定的时间内交付给客户。
- Order to delivery cycle 订单完成周期
- Percent shipments expedited 加急发货百分比
- Response time to inquiry 查询回复时间
Operations
- Production to due date 生产到期日
- Manufacturing cycle time 制造周期时间
- Backorders 缺货订单
- New product lead time 新产品前置时间
- Customer complaints 客户投诉：指消费者对购买的商品或接受的服务不满意，向商家或相关部门提出的反馈和意见。
Logistics
- Fill Rate 填充率：指在供应链管理、广告投放等领域中，成功完成需求或订单的百分比。
- On-time delivery 准时交货：指货物或服务在规定的时间内交付给客户。
- Order cycle time 订货周期
- Complete orders 完成订单：指在购物、餐饮或其他服务过程中，顾客已经完成了所有必要的步骤，包括选择商品或服务、支付费用等，订单进入等待处理或发货的状态。
- Customer complaints 客户投诉：指消费者对购买的商品或接受的服务不满意，向商家或相关部门提出的反馈和意见。
Measures of Productivity
Productivity is the ratio of total output to total input.
生产率是总产出与总投入的比率。
Productivity growth must not come at the expense of quality or customer satisfaction.
生产力的增长不能以牺牲质量或客户满意度为代价。
同样的三方面
Sourcing
- Purchase orders per employee 每个员工的采购订单
- Dollar spend per employee 每个员工的美元支出
- Commodity teams per employee 每个员工的商品团队
- Percent transactions automated 自动化交易百分比
Operations
- labour productivity 劳动生产率：衡量单位劳动者在一定时间内所产出的产品或服务数量的指标。
- Equipment downtime 设备状态异常以及不能完成预定功能的时间
- Changeover time 更换时间：指在生产过程中，从一种产品或服务切换到另一种产品或服务所需的时间。
- Engineering change orders 工程改变命令
- Total factor Productivity 全要素生产率：衡量生产过程中所有投入要素（如劳动力、资本、技术等）对产出的贡献，是衡量一个经济体生产效率的重要指标
Logistics
- Units shipped per employee 每名员工的出货量
- Equipment downtime 设备状态异常以及不能完成预定功能的时间
- Order productivity 订单生产力
- Warehouse labour productivity 仓库劳动生产率
- Transportation labout productivity 交通运输生产率
Measures of Quality
Measures of quality track the functionality or reliability of a product or service.
质量度量跟踪产品或服务的功能或可靠性。
Six Sigma targets a quality level which achieves defect rates of less than 3.4 ppm
六西格玛的目标是达到缺陷率低于3.4 ppm的质量水平（正态分布）
三方面分析
Sourcing
- Shipments rejected 被拒绝的出货量
- Defect rate—parts per million 缺陷率——百万分之一
- Percent suppliers certified 认证供应商百分比
- Percent orders from certified suppliers 来自认证供应商的订单百分比
- Response to inquiry 对询问的回答
Operations
- Defect rate—parts per million 缺陷率——百万分之一
- Percent rework or scrap 返工或报废的百分比
- Statistical process control 统计过程控制：一种通过收集数据并对其进行统计分析来监控和控制生产过程的质量的方法。
- Total hours quality training per year 每年质量培训总时数
- Percent employees six sigma trained 接受过六西格玛培训的员工比例
Logistics
- Damage frequency 损失频率
- Order entry accuracy 订单输入准确性
- Picking/shipping accuracy 挑选/航运准确性
- Document/invoi cing accuracy 文件/发票的准确性
- Number of customer returns 客户退货数
Traditional Measurement - Caveats 注意事项
Traditional measurement systems are not holistic, they are designed to capture and communicate primarily functional information.
传统的测量系统不是整体的，它们的设计主要是为了捕获和传达功能信息。
Traditional measures are primarily oriented to short-term financial results and cost-cutting.
传统措施主要着眼于短期财务结果和削减成本。
Contemporary Supply Chain Measures
Measurements consistent with supply chain management core principles emphasise:
符合供应链管理核心原则的测量强调:
- Goal alignment 目标认同
- Customer satisfaction 顾客满意度：衡量顾客对产品或服务的满意程度的指标，通常通过调查、反馈等方式收集。
- Process integration 过程集成：一种将各个生产过程相互连接以提高效率和降低成本的方法。
- Total costs 总成本：指生产或经营过程中所有与产品或服务相关的成本总和，包括固定成本和可变成本。
- Inter-organisational collaboration 组织间协作
SC Measures - Alignment
Often there is little relationship between strategic intent and measurement.
通常在战略意图和度量之间没有什么关系。
- Leads to dysfunctional behaviour 导致不良行为
Supply chain managers must align key measures within their own organisation as well as within the supply chain.
供应链管理人员必须在他们自己的组织内以及在供应链内调整关键措施。
SC Measures – Customer Satisfaction
Traditional customer service measurements often do not provide a clear understanding of customer expectation or satisfaction levels.
传统的客户服务测量通常不能提供对客户期望或满意度水平的清晰理解。
Internal service measures do not identify what the customer values or their perception of the value they receive.
内部服务措施不能确定顾客的价值或他们对所获得的价值的看法。
Customer Satisfaction Metrics
Traditional Practice 传统做法：指沿袭多年的习惯、方法或行为模式。
- Internal service measures over satisfaction measures 内部服务措施高于满意度措施
- Measures that are expressed as averages 用平均数表示的度量
- Measures that treat all customers the same 对所有客户一视同仁的措施
Best-In-Class Practice 最佳实践
- External assessment that reveals what customers really think is important 外部评估，揭示客户真正认为什么是重要的
- Absolute measure expressed in customer centric terms 以客户为中心的绝对度量
- Measures that recognise unique needs of individual customers 识别个别客户独特需求的措施
SC Measures – Total Cost
Total costing is a prerequisite to good process design and management.
全面成本计算是良好的工艺设计和管理的先决条件。
Total cost is the sum of all the costs incurred in planning, designing, sourcing, making, and delivering a product from raw material to the final customer.
总成本是计划、设计、采购、制造和从原材料到最终客户交付产品的所有成本的总和。
Managers lacking accurate total cost information make decisions that favour their own company’s financial performance when making trade-offs within the supply chain.
缺乏准确的总成本信息的管理者在权衡供应链时，会做出有利于自己公司财务绩效的决策。
Total Supply Chain Cost
Total supply chain costs are the sum of all costs incurred in planning, designing, sourcing, making, and delivering a product from raw materials to the final customer.
总供应链成本是计划、设计、采购、制造和从原材料到最终客户交付产品的所有成本的总和。
SC Measures – Activity Based Costing
Activity based costing links costs directly to the activities that drive them.
基于活动的成本计算将成本直接与驱动成本的活动联系起来。
ABC costing requires process transparency and detailed information on products, customers, activities, and resource costs.
基于活动的成本计算要求过程的透明性和产品、顾客、活动和资源成本的详细信息。
SC Measures - Scorecards
Process encompasses objectives, measures, targets, and action plans.
过程包括目标、度量、目标和行动计划。
Typical scorecard emphasises cost, quality, delivery, responsiveness, and innovation.
典型的记分卡强调成本、质量、交付、响应和创新。
Provide mechanism for evaluation and communication of performance along critical dimensions.
提供关键方面的绩效评估和沟通机制。
Benchmarking 基准测试
The formal process of comparing the attributes of one organisation to those of another.
将一个组织的属性与另一个组织的属性进行比较的正式过程。
Process consists of:
过程包括:
- Define attribute to be benchmarked and identified a best-in-class comparison company. 定义要进行基准测试的属性，并确定同类中最佳的比较公司。
- Document the best-in-class process at strategic and operational levels. Compare with current practice specifying any and all differences. 在战略和运营层面记录一流的流程。与目前的做法进行比较，说明任何和所有的差异。
- Develop a strategy, complete with specific methods, for adopting best practices. 制定采用最佳实践的战略，包括具体方法。
Benchmarking - Types
Competitive Benchmarking – evaluating best practices of leading competitors within industry.
竞争基准-评估行业内领先竞争对手的最佳实践。
Non-competitive Benchmarking – evaluating best practices regardless of industry.
非竞争性基准-评估最佳实践，无论行业。
Internal Benchmarking - large global firms may find opportunities to disseminate best practices within the organisation.
内部基准-大型全球公司可能会找到机会在组织内部传播最佳实践。
Benchmarking - Caveats 注意事项
Effective benchmarking depends on the competitive attitude of management.
有效的标杆管理取决于管理层的竞争态度。
Benchmarking alters manager’s perception of their own company’s performance.
标杆管理改变了管理者对自己公司业绩的看法。
Active benchmarkers are more likely to recognise deficiencies.
积极的标杆更有可能发现不足之处。
High performing SC companies are likely to be active benchmarkers.
高绩效的SC公司可能会成为积极的标杆。
Supply Chain Performance Measures
Superior supply chain performance moves beyond simple functional excellence.
卓越的供应链绩效超越了简单的功能卓越。
New measures are required to facilitate collaboration throughout the entire supply chain.
需要采取新的措施来促进整个供应链的协作。
Characteristics of Effective Measures
Aligned with organisational goals
与组织目标一致
Aligned with project goals
与项目目标保持一致
Customer oriented
以客户为导向：一种以满足客户需求为核心目标的商业策略，强调为客户提供高质量的产品和服务。
Meaningful to workers, managers, & customers
对工人、经理和客户都有意义
Consistent across appropriate functions or departments
在适当的职能或部门之间保持一致
Promotes cooperative behaviour both horizontally & vertically
促进横向和纵向的合作行为
Communicated to all relevant individuals
与所有相关人员沟通
Simple, straightforward, & understandable
简单、直接、易懂
Easy to collect the needed data
易于收集所需数据
Easy to calculate
易于计算
Available on a timely basis—real time when possible
及时提供——如果可能的话是实时的
Strategic and tactical
战略战术
Quantifiable
可以计量的
Designed to drive appropriate behaviour
旨在驱动适当的行为
Designed to drive learning & continuous improvement
旨在推动学习和持续改进
Designed to provide information that is actually used in decision-making
旨在提供在决策中实际使用的信息
Measures of supply chain performance 供应链绩效的度量
SC Inventory Days of Supply SC库存供应天数
- Total number of days of inventory required to support the supply chain—from raw materials to the final customer acquisition. Expressed as calendar days of supply based on recent actual daily cost of sales 支持从原材料到最终客户采购的供应链所需的库存总天数。根据最近的每日实际销售成本，以日历日的供应量表示
Supply-Chain Response Time 供应链响应时间
- The theoretical number of days required to recognise a major shift in market demand and increase production by 20 percent 认识到市场需求发生重大变化并将产量提高20%所需的理论天数
Total Supply Chain Cost 供应链管理总成本
- The sum of all the costs incurred in planning, designing, sourcing, making, and delivering a product broken down for each member of the supply chain 在计划、设计、采购、制造和交付产品过程中产生的所有成本的总和，这些成本被分解为供应链的每个成员
Cash-to-Cash Cycle Time 现金的循环周期时间
- The time required to convert a dollar spent to acquire raw materials into a dollar collected for finished product. (Total Inventory Days of Supply + Days Sales Outstanding – Days Payables Outstanding). 将购买原材料所花费的一美元转换成购买成品所收取的一美元所需要的时间。(总库存天数+销售天数-应付天数)
Perfect Order Fulfillment 订单完全执行率
- A perfect order is an order that is delivered complete, on time, in perfect condition, and with accurate and complete documentation. Fulfillment is the percent of orders that are perfect (Perfect orders/Total orders). 完美订单是指交付完整、准时、状态完美，并附有准确、完整的文件的订单。履行是指完成订单的百分比(完成订单/总订单)。
Inventory Dwell Time 库存停留时间
- The ratio of days inventory sits idle to days inventory is being productively used or positioned 库存闲置天数与库存被有效使用或定位的天数之比
Source/Make Cycle Time 源/制造周期时间
- The cumulative time to build a shippable product from scratch—if you start with no inventory on hand or on order. Consists of total sourcing lead time, release-to- start build, total build cycle time, and complete build-to-ship time 从零开始构建可交付产品的累积时间——如果您开始时手头没有库存或订单。由总采购提前时间、发布到开始构建、总构建周期时间和完整构建到交付时间组成
Customer Inquiry Response Time 客户查询回应时间
- The average elapsed time between receipt of a customer call and connection with the appropriate company representative 从接到客户电话到与相应的公司代表联系之间的平均时间
Customer Inquiry Resolution Time 客户查询解决时间
- The average elapsed time required to completely resolve a customer inquiry 完全解决客户查询所需的平均运行时间
Order Fulfillment Cycle Time 订单完成率
- The average actual lead times consistently achieved, in calendar days, from customer order to customer delivery. Includes, order authorisation to entry, entry to release, release to shippable, shippable to customer receipt, and receipt to customer acceptance 从客户订单到客户交付的平均实际交货期(以日历天为单位)始终如一。包括订单授权到入库，入库到放行，放行到可发运，可发运到客户收货，收货到客户验收
On-Shelf In-Stock Percentage 货架库存百分比
- The percentage of time that a product is available on the shelf, rack, or wherever the customer expects to find and buy it. Measures the supply chain’s ultimate ability to satisfy the end customer 产品在货架上、货架上或顾客期望找到和购买它的任何地方可用的时间百分比。衡量供应链满足最终客户的最终能力
Value-Added Productivity 增值生产率
- Total company revenues generated less the value of externally sourced materials expressed as a ratio of total company headcount 公司总收入减去外部采购材料的价值占公司总员工数的比例
其中
- Supply chain inventory days supply 供应链库存日供应
- Supply chain response time 供应链响应时间
- Total supply chain costs 供应链管理总成本
These measures allow for identification of inefficiencies throughout the entire supply chain.
这些措施可以识别整个供应链的低效率。
Cash-to-Cash Cycle Time
【大多数公司都有一个正的现金周转期。在大多数情况下，当现金周转周期较短，或为负值时，说明在营运资金管理中，应付账款的周转天数越长，企业占用供应商资金的能力越强。——来源：现金周转天数为负数说明什么（现金周转天数为负数）_城乡经济网 (sinabz.com)】
Perfect Order Busters 完美订单破坏者（影响Perfect Order的因素）
Order-entry error
订单录入错误
Ordered item is unavailable
订购的物品不可用
Incomplete paperwork
不完整的文件
Picking error
选择错误
Customer deduction
客户扣除
Damaged shipment
货物损毁
Overcharge error
要价过高的错误
Error in payment processing
付款处理错误
Missing information
缺失信息：指在某种情况下所需的信息不完整或缺失。
Late shipment
延迟装运
Inability to meet ship date
不能按时交货
Early arrival
提前到达：在预定或预期的时间之前到达目的地。
Inaccurate picking paperwork
拾取文件不准确
Invoice error
发票错误
Credit hold
信用控制：一种对客户的信用限制，通常是因为客户未按时付款或信用评分较低。在信用控制期间，客户可能无法购买新的产品或服务。
对于People Management，只摘取一些我认为的重点
Management Training
In addition to problem solving and role specific training, managers should receive training in the following:
除了解决问题和特定角色的培训外，管理人员还应接受以下培训:
- Overview of the organisation focusing on its history, culture, and objectives. 组织概述，重点是其历史、文化和目标。
- Review of customers, their needs, wants, and success factors. 回顾客户、他们的需求、愿望和成功因素。
- Analysis of key suppliers, including their competencies and capacities. 主要供应商的分析，包括他们的竞争力和能力。
- Exercises in communication, teamwork, and paradigm shifts. 练习沟通、团队合作和模式转换。
- Specific instruction regarding the firm’s performance measurement and reward system. 关于公司绩效评估和奖励制度的具体指导。
Cross-Training
Cross-functional workers emerged with Lean manufacturing principles.
跨职能员工随着精益生产原则的出现而出现。
Toyota, the inventor of Lean, seeks to develop world-class process capabilities based on development and integration of people and technology.
丰田是精益的发明者，致力于开发基于人与技术的开发和整合的世界级流程能力。
Cross-Training: Lessons from Toyota
-
Requires heavy investment in problem solving skills. 需要在解决问题的能力上投入大量资金。
-
Requires broad job descriptions. 需要广泛的职位描述。
- At NUMMI (New United Motor Manufacturing Inc., JV between Toyota and GM), the number of job descriptions was reduced from 200 to 3. 在NUMMI(新联合汽车制造公司，丰田和通用的合资企业)，职位描述的数量从200个减少到3个。
- Requires management to empower employees with the authority and responsibility necessary to make real decisions that make an impact. 要求管理层赋予员工必要的权力和责任，让他们做出真正有影响的决定。
- Jidoka – man and machine system; the authority to stop the production system when problems are identified. Jidoka -人机系统;当发现问题时，有权停止生产系统。
- Requires management to develop collegial relations with the workforce. 要求管理层与员工建立合作关系。
Cross-Experienced Management Team
Goal is to provide managers an understanding of roles and challenges inherent in diverse value-added activities throughout the company.
目标是让管理人员了解整个公司各种增值活动中固有的角色和挑战。
Many companies have developed multi-year manager trainee programs that include job rotation, providing trainees with extended experience within various functional areas.
许多公司都制定了多年的经理培训计划，其中包括轮岗，为培训生提供不同职能领域的扩展经验。
Helps to build relationships, reducing barriers to cross-functional cooperation.
有助于建立关系，减少跨职能合作的障碍。
Job Rotation Programs
Develops an appreciation for the needs and wants of customers
培养对客户需求的理解
Become familiar with products and value-added process
熟悉产品和增值流程
Gain perspective of different functional areas and how the functional areas work or don’t work together
了解不同的功能区域，以及这些功能区域如何协同工作或不协同工作
Establish relationships, improving future decision making, reducing barriers to collaborative initiatives
建立关系，改进未来的决策制定，减少协作计划的障碍
Develop appreciation for workers that make the product or interface with customers
培养对制造产品或与客户打交道的员工的感激之情
Job rotation can continue after initial hiring.
初次录用后可以继续轮岗。
- Communicates that the company is serious about systems thinking and teamwork. 传达公司对系统思维和团队合作的重视。
- Improves cross-functional communication. 改善跨职能沟通。
Can be accomplished with assignment to cross-functional task forces and project teams.
可以通过分配到跨职能的任务小组和项目团队来完成。
Team Design Process
Identify a well-defined goal that can be clearly articulated and communicated.
确定一个明确的目标，可以清楚地表达和沟通。
Identify the variety of expertise and experience required to accomplish teams goals.
确定完成团队目标所需的各种专业知识和经验。
Define time commitment required.
定义所需的时间承诺。
Identify people with the right knowledge, experience, and complementary working styles.
确定具有正确知识、经验和互补工作方式的人。
Determine whether individuals can be freed from current tasks and whether their participation will add more value to the firm than those tasks.
确定个人是否可以从当前的任务中解脱出来，以及他们的参与是否会给公司带来比这些任务更多的价值。
Identify a skilled leader.
确定一个有技能的领导者。
Working Styles
Quick Starter - highly energetic, sees an opportunity and quickly mobilises energy.
快速起步——精力充沛，能看到机会并迅速调动精力。
Fact Finder - very meticulous and oriented toward detail and analysis.
事实发现者——非常细致，注重细节和分析。
Follow-through - determined and focused on carrying out a task to its completion.
坚持到底-决心并专注于完成一项任务。
Implementer - very task oriented, with a particular penchant for hands on work.
实现者——非常以任务为导向，特别喜欢动手工作。
Requirements for Team Building
Common Goal - Successful teams possess a common goal
共同目标——成功的团队拥有共同的目标
Leadership – Successful teams are led by well- respected managers who understand team dynamics
领导能力——成功的团队是由了解团队动态的受人尊敬的经理领导的
Communication - Open, constructive communication is fundamental to team success
沟通——开放的、建设性的沟通是团队成功的基础
Cooperation - Effective teams sometimes require compromise
合作——有效的团队有时需要妥协
Specific Roles - Team members understand their role and responsibilities
具体的角色——团队成员了解他们的角色和责任
Measurement - Clear and precise performance measures facilitate success
衡量——清晰和精确的绩效衡量有助于成功
Individual Responsibility - Each member accountable for individual and team performance
个人责任-每个成员对个人和团队的表现负责
Resources - Adequate resources/information is available
资源——有足够的资源/信息可用
Time - Chemistry emerges as team members spend quality time working together
时间——当团队成员花高质量的时间一起工作时，就会产生化学反应
Team Development Process
Forming - determines team membership.
形成——决定团队成员。
Storming - establishes direction, purpose, roles, responsibilities, and rewards for both the overall team and each team member.
风暴——为整个团队和每个团队成员建立方向、目标、角色、责任和奖励。
Norming - establishes team rules and procedures, helping teams to synchronise their activities.
规范——建立团队规则和程序，帮助团队同步他们的活动。
Performing – identification of problems and opportunities, establishing a plan of attack, and then implementing the plan. A well-designed, well-trained team often finds that performing is the easiest part of the team process.
执行-识别问题和机会，制定攻击计划，然后实施计划。一个设计良好、训练有素的团队通常会发现，执行任务是团队过程中最容易的部分。
Adjourning - up-front definition of key milestones and a specific ending point in terms of outputs and a target completion date.
延期-预先定义关键里程碑和具体的结束点，包括产出和目标完成日期。
Leadership – the 7 Rights
Get the **right **people
找合适的人
Communicate the **right **expectations
传达正确的期望
Provide the **right **training
提供正确的培训
Measure the **right **things
衡量正确的事情
Reward the **right **behaviour
奖励正确的行为
Support with the **right **resources
支持正确的资源
Give them the **right **opportunity (i.e., get out of the way).
给他们正确的机会(即，让开)。
Goal Setting
Aggressive and systematic goal setting drives out complacency, helping to sustain momentum of an empowered workforce.
积极和系统的目标设定可以驱除自满情绪，帮助维持员工赋权的势头。
Failure cannot be punished, it must be used as a learning experience.
失败不能受到惩罚，必须把它当作学习的经验。
Managers must work with employees to facilitate goal attainment.
管理者必须与员工合作，促进目标的实现。
ABCs of Empowerment 授权
Affirmation – positive reinforcement to the workforce making them feel truly valued.
肯定——对员工的积极强化，使他们感到真正受到重视。
Belonging – employees must feel a sense of community and commitment.
归属感——员工必须有一种归属感和责任感。
Competence – the company must invest in employee capabilities throughout the organisation.
能力——公司必须投资于整个组织的员工能力。
Topic 15是关于law和ethical的，直接略过
Cost Mgt – relationships
这个图我们在W3提到过，分类方法叫做Decision Matrix，表格内的内容是面对这四类Supplier在选择时的分析方法，具体请回W3看
Transactional Relationship 交易关系
Focus is on cost 关注成本
- Use of reverse auctions 使用反向拍卖
- Managed for efficiency 管理效率
- Global sourcing 全球采购：一种采购策略，企业在全球范围内寻找供应商，以获取最佳的产品和服务，降低成本，提高竞争力。
Relationships are often transitory 人际关系往往是短暂的
- Receive minimal managerial time 接受最少的管理时间
- Receive minimal assistance 接受最低限度的援助
- Receive minimal investment 获得最少的投资
【就类似于你去超市买瓶水，这种就是Transactional relationship。关系是短暂的，而且可以货比三家】
Transactional Relationships - Goals
Management of transactional relationships should seek to satisfy two objectives:
事务关系的管理应力求满足两个目标:
- Maximum efficiency and handling transactions. 最高效率和处理交易。
- Good relations, both parties feel they are treated fairly. 良好的关系，双方都觉得自己受到了公平的对待
Transactional Relationships – Outcomes
Lower administrative costs
降低管理成本
Lower product and/or service costs
降低产品和/或服务成本
Better quality, innovation, and responsiveness
提高质量、创新和响应能力
Enhanced technical support
加强技术支持
Delivery of special services
提供特别服务
Opportunity to collect competitive intelligence
收集竞争情报的机会
Fewer complaints and better industry reputation
投诉少，行业信誉好
More profitable relationships
更有利的关系
Opportunity to build closer, more collaborative relationships in the future
有机会在未来建立更紧密、更协作的关系
Strategic Alliance
Focus is on coordinating complementary core competencies
重点是协调互补的核心能力
Relationships are closely scrutinised and carefully managed
他们密切关注和管理各种关系
Intensive and open communication supported by linked information systems
由相互联系的信息系统支持的密集和开放的交流
Cross-organisational teams drive cooperative planning
跨组织团队推动合作计划
Long-term relationships
长期关系
Strategic Alliance – Factors
Relationship represents a high-value and volume, either in sales or purchases.
关系代表高价值和数量，无论是在销售还是购买。
SC member represents a large share of the company’s business, either sales or purchases.
SC成员代表了公司业务的很大一部分，无论是销售还是采购。
Potential partner possess skills, technology, or another unique aspect that cannot be found elsewhere.
潜在的伴侣拥有其他地方找不到的技能、技术或其他独特的方面。
Strategic component, service, or upstream/downstream relationship is affected.
战略组件、服务或上下游关系受到影响。
Potential scarcity governs the marketplace.
潜在的稀缺性支配着市场。
Intensive collaboration can create advantage: better quality, lower costs, shorter cycles, or unique service.
紧密合作可以创造优势:更好的质量，更低的成本，更短的周期，或独特的服务。
Strategic Alliance - Benefits
Focus on individual strengths, potentially leveraging them into core competencies
专注于个人优势，潜在地将其转化为核心竞争力
Manage the chain as a value system, optimising resource usage across the chain
将供应链作为一个价值系统来管理，优化整个供应链的资源使用
Offer unique product/service packages and one-of-a-kind satisfaction opportunities
提供独特的产品/服务包和独一无二的满意度机会
Increase flexibility while spreading risk
增加灵活性，同时分散风险
Learn from SC partners
向SC合作伙伴学习
Strategic Alliance – Customer Outcomes
Lower cost
降低成本：减少生产、运营或其他方面的费用，以提高利润或竞争力。
Improved product quality
提高产品质量
Enhanced responsiveness
增强反应能力
Decreased order fulfillment times
减少订单完成时间
Innovation
创新
Improved allocation of scarce resources
改善稀缺资源的配置
Strategic Alliance – Supplier Outcomes
Long-term, large volume contracts
长期、大批量的合同
Production stability
生产平稳性
Lower costs
降低费用
Allows:
- Investment in new technologies 对新技术的投资
May result in:
- Access to buyer’s expertise 获得买方的专业知识
- Access to buyer financing for materials or equipment 获得材料或设备的买方融资
Alliance Development Process 联盟发展过程
Phase 1 Internal
Question to be addressed:
- What should our alliance strategy look like? 我们的联盟战略应该是什么样的?
- Overall relationship management policy should be established 建立全面的关系管理政策
- Specific opportunities along with expected outcomes should be identified 应该确定具体的机会以及预期的结果
Phase 1 Best Practices
A formal alliance strategy is established complete with policies to guide all aspects of an alliance - from who key contacts will be to how resources will be shared and when investments will occur.
一个正式的联盟战略是建立完整的政策来指导联盟的各个方面-从谁将是关键联系人到如何共享资源以及何时进行投资。
A formal mechanism is used to identify and screen potential alliance partners
一个正式的机制被用来识别和筛选潜在的联盟伙伴
Phase 2 Collaborative 协同
The goal is to quantify the net impact of the potential alliance on both parties
目标是量化潜在联盟对双方的净影响
Gain top management support
获得最高管理层的支持
Focus on implementing via goal identification, role specification, adoption of performance metrics and milestones
专注于通过目标识别、角色规范、采用性能指标和里程碑来实现
Phase 2 Best Practices
Clear and concise long-term (1-5 years) contracts govern most successful alliances.
清晰而简洁的长期(1-5年)合同支配着大多数成功的联盟。
Roles and responsibilities are clearly defined and communicated. Explicitly stated roles reduce conflict.
角色和职责有明确的定义和沟通。明确说明的角色可以减少冲突。
Confidentiality agreements protect proprietary technologies and processes - specify how jointly developed technology will be used in the future.
保密协议保护专有技术和工艺——规定未来如何使用联合开发的技术。
Continuous improvement clauses targeting cost, quality, delivery, and innovation performance are standard in most alliances. Clauses specify both rewards and penalties.
针对成本、质量、交付和创新绩效的持续改进条款是大多数联盟的标准。条款规定了奖励和惩罚。
Exit criteria are spelled out at the very beginning of the relationship. Even productive relationships can become one-sided or cease to be mutually beneficial.
退出标准在关系一开始就明确规定了。即使是富有成效的关系也会变得一边倒或不再互利。
Phase 3 Day-to-Day Management
Transition to day-to-day operation
过渡到日常运作.
Celebration and partner recognition programs
庆祝活动和伙伴表彰活动
Continuous performance evaluation
持续绩效评估
Continuous environmental scanning
连续环境扫描
Phase 3 Best Practices
Dedicated teams are used to foster “personal” relationships and establish continuity between alliance partners, facilitating collaboration, problem solving and brainstorming activities.
专门的团队用于培养“个人”关系，并在联盟伙伴之间建立连续性，促进合作，解决问题和头脑风暴活动。
Technology linkages are established to make frequent, honest, and open information exchange routine.
建立技术联系，使频繁、诚实和公开的信息交流成为常态。
Problem resolution methodology must be used to resolve occasional misunderstandings or breakdowns that occur.
问题解决方法必须用于解决偶尔发生的误解或故障。
Risks and rewards are shared on a mutually acceptable basis. Synergy requires that both sides of an alliance benefit from the relationship—real alliances are not one-sided.
风险和回报是在双方都能接受的基础上分担的。协同作用要求联盟双方都能从这种关系中获益——真正的联盟不是单方面的。
Performance measures are aligned. Consistent measures allow identification of problems before they become crises.
绩效指标是一致的。一致的措施可以在问题变成危机之前识别问题。
Keys to Successful Alliances
Collaborative/joint efforts
协作和共同努力
Patience and perseverance
耐心和毅力
Collaborative continuous improvement
协同持续改进
Personal relationships
个人关系
Collaborative creativity and idea generation
协作创造和创意生成
Shared vision and objectives
共同的愿景和目标
Cultural fit
文化契合
Trust
信任
Mutual commitment to the relationship
对关系的相互承诺
Understanding of each other’s businesses
了解彼此的业务
Mutual dependence
相互依赖：指两个或多个事物、人或组织之间存在一种关系，使它们互相需要对方的支持、帮助或合作。
Willingness to be flexible and tailor services
愿意灵活和量身定制的服务
Supply Chain Relationship Practices
**Personal contact **- Personal relationships generate goodwill and reduce miscommunication
个人接触-个人关系产生善意并减少误解
**Clear specifications **- Product, process and contract fulfillment specifications should be clearly stated to reduce confusion and ambiguity
明确的规范-产品、过程和合同履行规范应明确说明，以减少混淆和歧义
**Timely payment **- Suppliers should be paid as quickly and easily as possible.
及时付款-应尽快方便地付款给供应商。
**Equitable treatment **- Policies should be applied equally; playing favorites creates suspicion and mistrust, damaging relations.
公平待遇-政策应平等适用;厚此薄彼只会产生猜疑和不信任，破坏关系。
**Training **– Appropriate support and training provided to customers and suppliers.
培训-为客户和供应商提供适当的支持和培训。
**Open communication **- Timely information shared via electronic linkages and face-to-face communication is critical.
开放的沟通-通过电子链接和面对面沟通及时分享信息至关重要。
**Feedback **- Periodic surveys of suppliers and customers coupled with face-to-face feedback can build trust while helping improve the transaction process.
反馈-定期对供应商和客户进行调查，再加上面对面的反馈，可以建立信任，同时有助于改善交易流程。
**Mutual consideration **- Managers should not unnecessarily burden other SC members. Delays or changes in product and service specifications should be shared immediately.
相互考虑-管理人员不应不必要地负担其他SC成员。产品和服务规范的延迟或变更应立即共享。
**Give and take **- All suggestions received from other SC members should be evaluated quickly and feedback provided promptly.
给予和接受-从其他SC成员收到的所有建议都应迅速评估并及时提供反馈。
**Confidentiality **– Customer/Supplier information should remain strictly confidential.
保密性 -客户/供应商信息应严格保密。
**Integrity **- SC managers should always exhibit a desire to fulfill all contract obligations without hassle or argument.
诚信- SC经理应始终表现出履行所有合同义务的愿望，而不需要争吵或争论。
The Role of Trust and Power
Trust is the foundation of SCM
信任是供应链管理的基础
Promotes collaboration, risk taking, information sharing, and shared resources
促进协作、承担风险、信息共享和资源共享
Real trust exists only when both parties agree that it does
真正的信任只有在双方都同意的情况下才存在
Principles of Trust in SCM
Trust is Two-sided – trust is difficult to establish when power is asymmetrical
信任是双向的——当权力不对称时，信任是难以建立的
Trust is Behaviour – consistent patterns of behaviour build trust
信任是行为——一致的行为模式建立信任
Trust Requires Open Information Sharing – open communication promotes strong and dynamic relationships
信任需要公开的信息分享——公开的交流促进牢固和动态的关系
Trust is Personal – suppliers don’t trust institutions, they trust people
信任是个人的——供应商不相信机构，他们相信人
Trust Means Performance – there is no trust without consistent and outstanding performance
信任意味着业绩——没有持续和出色的业绩就没有信任
Trust – Different Views
Buyer和Supplier对于左侧这一列的各自态度
Modern Negotiation
Negotiation is the formal communication process where two or more parties discuss important issues and come to a mutually satisfactory agreement.
谈判是双方或多方讨论重要问题并达成双方满意协议的正式沟通过程。
Successful negotiations require careful management of information, personal relationships, time, and power.
成功的谈判需要仔细管理信息、人际关系、时间和权力。
Note: No agreement is better than a bad agreement.
注:没有协议总比糟糕的协议好。
Commonly Negotiated Areas
Price
价格
Quality
质量
Service level
服务水平：衡量服务质量的指标，通常用于描述服务提供商在一定时间内达到的服务质量标准。
Confidentiality, especially cost structure and proprietary technologies
保密，特别是成本结构和专有技术
Continuous improvement (quality, cost, and other relevant areas)
持续改进(质量、成本和其他相关领域)
Contract duration and volumes
合同期限和数量
Delivery schedules
交货时间表：一份详细列出货物交付日期和数量的计划，通常用于生产和物流管理。
Joint research and development
合作研究开发项目计划
Nonperformance definitions and penalties
非性能定义和惩罚
Legal recourse for non-compliance
对违规行为的法律追索权
Ownership and use of intellectual property that is jointly developed
共同开发的知识产权的所有权和使用情况
Provisions for terminating the relationship
解除关系的规定
Shared resources including capital, personnel, and technology
资源共享，包括资金、人员和技术
Technical assistance and support
技术支持与协助协议
Negotiation Philosophies 谈判哲学
Win-Lose Philosophy
- Fixed value exists in the relationship 固定值存在于关系中
- Goal is to capture as much about you as possible 目标是尽可能多地了解你自己
- Pits customer and supplier against each other 使客户和供应商相互对立
Win-Win Philosophy
- Synergistic creation of value 协同创造价值
- Working together both parties can improve their competitive position and profitability 双方合作可以提高他们的竞争地位和盈利能力
Prerequisites for Win-Win:
Win-Win solutions require that both sides must:
双赢的解决方案要求双方必须:
- Adopt a win-win mentality. 采取双赢的思维方式
- Have vested interest in successful outcome. 对成功的结果有既得利益。
- View the negotiation as part of a larger or longer-term relationship. 将谈判视为更大或更长期关系的一部分。
- Recognise the other’s needs and wants. The ultimate measure of success is the perception that the process has been fair and everyone’s objectives have been met. 认识到对方的需要和欲望。衡量成功的最终标准是人们是否认为这个过程是公平的，每个人的目标都实现了。
- Work jointly to create value. They share information and resources. When difficulties arise, cooperative efforts are undertaken to find an accommodating solution. 共同创造价值。他们共享信息和资源。出现困难时，进行合作努力以寻求通融的解决办法。
- Approach the negotiation with an attitude of trust. 以信任的态度进行谈判。
Preparing for a Successful Negotiation
Develop specific objectives
制定具体的目标
Establish an effective negotiating team
建立一个有效的谈判团队
Gather relevant information
收集相关信息
Analyse strengths and weaknesses
分析优势和劣势
Recognise the other side’s needs
认识到对方的需求
Determine the facts of the issues
确定问题的事实
Establish a position on each issue
在每个问题上确立自己的立场
Plan the negotiation strategy
制定谈判策略
Select appropriate tactics
选择合适的策略
Practice the negotiation
练习谈判
Common Negotiation Tactics 常见的谈判策略
Argue Based on Facts. Arguments that cannot be factually supported damage credibility.
基于事实争论。没有事实支持的论点会损害可信度。
Answer Questions Carefully. Experienced negotiators know that the proper answer to a question is truthful, advances the negotiator’s tactical plan, and helps discern the supplier’s objectives.
认真回答问题。有经验的谈判者知道问题的正确答案是真实的，这可以推进谈判者的战术计划，并有助于辨别供应商的目标。
Be Considerate. Treating counterparts with respect and dignity almost never costs a well-prepared negotiator much in terms of position or outcome, but it does build good will.
体贴。以尊重和尊严对待对方几乎不会让准备充分的谈判者在立场或结果上付出太多代价，但它确实能建立良好的意愿。
Be Wary of Deadlines. An effective negotiator does not let deadlines force bad decisions. The use of arbitrary or meaningless deadlines diminishes credibility.
小心最后期限。一个有效的谈判者不会让最后期限强迫做出错误的决定。使用武断或无意义的最后期限会降低可信度。
Best and Final Offer. The take-it-or-leave-it approach signals the need for a decision on a specific point. If the negotiator is not prepared to end the negotiation and the “bluff” is called, credibility is lost.
最佳和最终报价。要么接受，要么放弃的方法表明需要在特定的点上做出决定。如果谈判者不准备结束谈判，而被称为“虚张声势”，信誉就会丧失。
Do Not be Afraid to Say No. It is better to say no than to agree to an unsatisfactory position. Being candid has merit.
不要害怕说“不”。与其同意一个不满意的立场，不如说不。坦诚是有优点的。
Foot in the Door. Whenever an exceptional quote is received a negotiator should examine both motivation and capabilities to determine whether the offer represents a real long-term benefit.
迈出第一步。每当收到一个特殊的报价时，谈判者应该检查动机和能力，以确定报价是否代表真正的长期利益。
High Ball. Win-lose negotiators sometimes begin a negotiation at an extreme position, expecting to make concessions.
高球。双赢谈判者有时在一个极端的位置开始谈判，期望做出让步。
Honesty and Openness. Win-win negotiations emphasize honest, and open sharing of information.
诚实和开放。双赢谈判强调诚实、公开地分享信息。
Keep the Initiative. Some negotiators believe that the “best defense is a good offense.” They establish initiative early and maintain it by probing the other side’s position, asking for justifications and requiring supporting documentation.
保持主动性一些谈判者认为“最好的防御就是好的进攻”。他们很早就建立了主动性，并通过探究对方的立场、询问理由和要求支持文件来保持主动性。
Listen Effectively. Great listeners focus on not only the words but also the tone of voice and the pauses. Careful observation provides insight into the other side’s position and real objectives.
有效地听。优秀的倾听者不仅关注话语，还关注语气和停顿。仔细观察可以洞察对方的立场和真正的目标。
The Missing Person. The deliberate absence of the person with the decision-making authority gives the negotiator extra time or an opportunity to escape negotiations that are not going well.
失踪的人。有决策权的人故意缺席给谈判者额外的时间或机会来逃避进展不顺利的谈判。
Never Give Anything Away. Win-lose negotiators often believe that the other side should make more and larger concessions. For every concession made, equal or greater concessions are expected from the other side.
永远不要放弃任何东西。双赢谈判者通常认为对方应该做出更多更大的让步。对于作出的每一项让步，都期望对方作出同等或更大的让步。
Phantom Quote/Offer. Deliberately attempting to mislead the other side into believing that “a better quote (or offer) is waiting from another supplier (or buyer)” is unethical and risky.
提供幻影报价。故意误导对方相信“另一个供应商(或买家)正在等待更好的报价(或报价)”是不道德和有风险的。
Prioritise Issues. Two basic philosophies exist: 1) discuss the most difficult issues first and 2) discuss the “easy” issues first to establish the trust that will help resolve more difficult issues.
优先考虑的问题。有两个基本原则:1)首先讨论最困难的问题;2)首先讨论“容易”的问题，以建立信任，从而有助于解决更困难的问题。
Schedule Breaks. Scheduled breaks provide an opportunity to evaluate how things are going, discuss any surprises, gather additional information, and discuss strategies or tactics. The routine use of unscheduled breaks makes it difficult for the other party to draw meaning from a team’s decision to call for an unscheduled break.
规划休息时间。计划好的休息时间提供了一个评估事情进展的机会，讨论任何意外，收集额外的信息，讨论战略或战术。常规使用计划外休息使得另一方很难从团队要求计划外休息的决定中获得意义。
Security. Occasionally, unethical behavior ranging from the use of hidden microphones to the copying of work notes occurs. If in doubt, the negotiation should be conducted on-site at the negotiator’s location.
安全。偶尔，从使用隐藏麦克风到复制工作笔记等不道德的行为也会发生。如有疑问，应在谈判者所在地进行现场谈判。
Site Selection. Most negotiators prefer to host the negotiation to avoid travel and have access to needed information. The primary advantage of holding the negotiation at the other party’s site is the option to “walk away” from negotiations that are not going well. Informal and comfortable settings are best for win-win negotiations.
地点选择。大多数谈判者更喜欢主持谈判，以避免出差，并获得所需的信息。在对方地点举行谈判的主要好处是，如果谈判进展不顺利，你可以选择“走开”。非正式和舒适的环境最适合双赢的谈判。
Strong Initial Offer. Making a strong initial offer signals a desire to do business with the counterpart.
强有力的初始报价。提出一个强有力的初始报价表明你想和对方做生意。
The Threat. A tactic often used in win-lose negotiations is the threat—“If you don’t decide now, I can’t promise that we will have the material when you need it.” Frequent threats reduce credibility.
威胁。在输赢谈判中经常使用的一个策略是威胁——“如果你现在不决定，我不能保证在你需要的时候我们会有材料。”频繁的威胁会降低可信度。
Use Diversions. Experienced negotiators divert attention away from the problematic issues using a joke, an anecdote, or a well-timed break.
使用转移。有经验的谈判者会用笑话、轶事或适时的休息来转移人们对问题的注意力。
Use Positive Statements. Sometimes it is important to respond with a simple, “I see your point” or “Your point is well taken.”
使用肯定语句。有时候，简单地回答“我明白你的意思”或“你的意思很好”是很重要的。
Use Questions Effectively. The right question can undermine an unacceptable position or deflect criticism.
有效提问。正确的问题可以削弱不可接受的立场或转移批评。
Use Silence. Silence can be effectively used to avoid difficult questions, make the other side nervous, seek concessions without specifically asking for them, and redirect the discussion tactfully.
使用沉默。沉默可以有效地避免棘手的问题，使对方紧张，寻求让步，而不是明确要求他们，并巧妙地转移讨论。
Conducting Successful Negotiations 进行成功的谈判
Fact-finding – used to develop rapport; facts are those items which agreement is expected
事实调查——用于发展融洽关系;事实是那些期望达成一致的项目
Recess – used to reassess strikes and weaknesses; revise objectives; reevaluate key issues
休息-用来重新评估罢工和弱点;修改的目标;重新评估关键问题
Narrowing the differences – brainstorming, problem- solving, and compromise used to find a mutually agreeable position
缩小分歧——集思广益、解决问题和妥协，以找到双方都同意的立场
Hard bargaining – employs win-lose tactics when offered of efforts have failed
艰难的讨价还价-当提出的努力失败时，采用双赢策略
Characteristics of Effective Negotiators
