linux -- 内存管理 -- 页面分配器

linux内存管理

为什么要了解linux内存管理

分配并使用内存,是内核程序与驱动程序中非常重要的一环。内存分配函数都依赖于内核中一个非常复杂而重要的组件 - 内存管理。 linux驱动程序不可避免要与内核中的内存管理模块打交道。

linux内存管理可以总体上分为两大块:一是对物理内存的管理,二是对虚拟内存的管理。

物理内存管理

对物理内存的定义,引入了三个概念:内存节点node,内存区域zone,内存页page

对于物理内存的管理,总体上可以分为两层:

  1. 最底层的页面级内存管理
  2. 页面级管理之上,有slab内存管理

内存节点 node

为了将UMA系统和NUMA系统,结合起来,所以引入了内存节点这样一个概念。

在计算机体系结构上,有两种物理内存管理模型,被广泛使用:

  1. UMA(一致内存访问, Uniform Memory Access)模型,该模型的内存空间在物理上,也许是不连续的(比如有空洞的存在),但是所有内存空间对系统中的处理器而言,具有相同的访问特性
  2. NUMA(非一致内存访问,Non-Uniform Memory Access)模型,该模型总是用在多核处理器系统,系统中每个处理器都有本地内存,处理器与处理器之间通过总线连接起来,以支持其他处理器对比其本地的访问。与UMA模型不同的是,处理器在访问本地内存时速度更加快。

两种模型的区别:
linux -- 内存管理 -- 页面分配器_第1张图片
linux -- 内存管理 -- 页面分配器_第2张图片

linux源码中,以struct pglist_data数据结构,来表示单个内存节点,NUMA系统,有多个内存节点,所以会有多个pglist_data结构存在。而UMA结构中,只会有一个pglist_data结构。

内存区域zone

内存区域的概念,其范围要小于内存节点的概念。系统中各个模块,对物理内存的属性有不同的要求,因此linux又将每个内存节点所管理的物理内存,划分为不同的内存区域。

linux源码中,以strcut zone数据结构表示一个内存区域,内存区域的类型用枚举类型 zone_type表示:

ZONE_DMA:
当有些设备不能使用所有的ZONE_NORMAL区域中的内存作为内存空间的DMA访问时,就可以使用ZONE_DMA所表示的内存区域,于是我们把这部分空间划分出来专门用与DMA访问的内存空间。这部分区域的空间访问是处理器体系结构相关的(比如32位的x86体系结构下DMA只能访问16MB以下的物理内存空间)

ZONE_NORMAL:
常规内存访问区域,如果DMA可以使用这个区域作为内存访问,也可以使用这个区域。

ZONE_HIGHMEM:
高端内存区域,这个区域无法从内核虚拟地址空间直接作线性映射,所以为访问该区域,必须经内核作特殊的页映射。
i386体系上,内核空间1GB,除去其他开销,能对物理地址进行线性映射的空间大约只有896MB,高于896MB以上的物理地址空间就叫ZONE_HIGHMEM区域。

enum zone_type {
	/*
	 * ZONE_DMA and ZONE_DMA32 are used when there are peripherals not able
	 * to DMA to all of the addressable memory (ZONE_NORMAL).
	 * On architectures where this area covers the whole 32 bit address
	 * space ZONE_DMA32 is used. ZONE_DMA is left for the ones with smaller
	 * DMA addressing constraints. This distinction is important as a 32bit
	 * DMA mask is assumed when ZONE_DMA32 is defined. Some 64-bit
	 * platforms may need both zones as they support peripherals with
	 * different DMA addressing limitations.
	 */
#ifdef CONFIG_ZONE_DMA
	ZONE_DMA,
#endif
#ifdef CONFIG_ZONE_DMA32
	ZONE_DMA32,
#endif
	/*
	 * Normal addressable memory is in ZONE_NORMAL. DMA operations can be
	 * performed on pages in ZONE_NORMAL if the DMA devices support
	 * transfers to all addressable memory.
	 */
	ZONE_NORMAL,
#ifdef CONFIG_HIGHMEM
	/*
	 * A memory area that is only addressable by the kernel through
	 * mapping portions into its own address space. This is for example
	 * used by i386 to allow the kernel to address the memory beyond
	 * 900MB. The kernel will set up special mappings (page
	 * table entries on i386) for each page that the kernel needs to
	 * access.
	 */
	ZONE_HIGHMEM,
#endif
	/*
	 * ZONE_MOVABLE is similar to ZONE_NORMAL, except that it contains
	 * movable pages with few exceptional cases described below. Main use
	 * cases for ZONE_MOVABLE are to make memory offlining/unplug more
	 * likely to succeed, and to locally limit unmovable allocations - e.g.,
	 * to increase the number of THP/huge pages. Notable special cases are:
	 *
	 * 1. Pinned pages: (long-term) pinning of movable pages might
	 *    essentially turn such pages unmovable. Therefore, we do not allow
	 *    pinning long-term pages in ZONE_MOVABLE. When pages are pinned and
	 *    faulted, they come from the right zone right away. However, it is
	 *    still possible that address space already has pages in
	 *    ZONE_MOVABLE at the time when pages are pinned (i.e. user has
	 *    touches that memory before pinning). In such case we migrate them
	 *    to a different zone. When migration fails - pinning fails.
	 * 2. memblock allocations: kernelcore/movablecore setups might create
	 *    situations where ZONE_MOVABLE contains unmovable allocations
	 *    after boot. Memory offlining and allocations fail early.
	 * 3. Memory holes: kernelcore/movablecore setups might create very rare
	 *    situations where ZONE_MOVABLE contains memory holes after boot,
	 *    for example, if we have sections that are only partially
	 *    populated. Memory offlining and allocations fail early.
	 * 4. PG_hwpoison pages: while poisoned pages can be skipped during
	 *    memory offlining, such pages cannot be allocated.
	 * 5. Unmovable PG_offline pages: in paravirtualized environments,
	 *    hotplugged memory blocks might only partially be managed by the
	 *    buddy (e.g., via XEN-balloon, Hyper-V balloon, virtio-mem). The
	 *    parts not manged by the buddy are unmovable PG_offline pages. In
	 *    some cases (virtio-mem), such pages can be skipped during
	 *    memory offlining, however, cannot be moved/allocated. These
	 *    techniques might use alloc_contig_range() to hide previously
	 *    exposed pages from the buddy again (e.g., to implement some sort
	 *    of memory unplug in virtio-mem).
	 * 6. ZERO_PAGE(0), kernelcore/movablecore setups might create
	 *    situations where ZERO_PAGE(0) which is allocated differently
	 *    on different platforms may end up in a movable zone. ZERO_PAGE(0)
	 *    cannot be migrated.
	 * 7. Memory-hotplug: when using memmap_on_memory and onlining the
	 *    memory to the MOVABLE zone, the vmemmap pages are also placed in
	 *    such zone. Such pages cannot be really moved around as they are
	 *    self-stored in the range, but they are treated as movable when
	 *    the range they describe is about to be offlined.
	 *
	 * In general, no unmovable allocations that degrade memory offlining
	 * should end up in ZONE_MOVABLE. Allocators (like alloc_contig_range())
	 * have to expect that migrating pages in ZONE_MOVABLE can fail (even
	 * if has_unmovable_pages() states that there are no unmovable pages,
	 * there can be false negatives).
	 */
	ZONE_MOVABLE,
#ifdef CONFIG_ZONE_DEVICE
	ZONE_DEVICE,
#endif
	__MAX_NR_ZONES

};

内存页

page,是内存管理中的最小粒度,优势也叫做页帧(page frame,页帧号pfn)。linux会为系统物理内存的每个页都创建一个struct page对象,系统同一用struct page* mem_map存放所有物理页page 对象的指针。
一个内存页的大小,取决于MMU,ARMv8MMU可以支持4KB,16KB,64KB这三种页面粒度。一般来说4KB用的最多。

/*
 * Each physical page in the system has a struct page associated with
 * it to keep track of whatever it is we are using the page for at the
 * moment. Note that we have no way to track which tasks are using
 * a page, though if it is a pagecache page, rmap structures can tell us
 * who is mapping it.
 */
struct page {
	unsigned long flags;		/* Atomic flags, some possibly
					 * updated asynchronously */
	atomic_t _count;		/* Usage count, see below. */
	union {
		atomic_t _mapcount;	/* Count of ptes mapped in mms,
					 * to show when page is mapped
					 * & limit reverse map searches.
					 */
		struct {		/* SLUB */
			u16 inuse;
			u16 objects;
		};
	};
	union {
	    struct {
		unsigned long private;		/* Mapping-private opaque data:
					 	 * usually used for buffer_heads
						 * if PagePrivate set; used for
						 * swp_entry_t if PageSwapCache;
						 * indicates order in the buddy
						 * system if PG_buddy is set.
						 */
		struct address_space *mapping;	/* If low bit clear, points to
						 * inode address_space, or NULL.
						 * If page mapped as anonymous
						 * memory, low bit is set, and
						 * it points to anon_vma object:
						 * see PAGE_MAPPING_ANON below.
						 */
	    };
#if USE_SPLIT_PTLOCKS
	    spinlock_t ptl;
#endif
	    struct kmem_cache *slab;	/* SLUB: Pointer to slab */
	    struct page *first_page;	/* Compound tail pages */
	};
	union {
		pgoff_t index;		/* Our offset within mapping. */
		void *freelist;		/* SLUB: freelist req. slab lock */
	};
	struct list_head lru;		/* Pageout list, eg. active_list
					 * protected by zone->lru_lock !
					 */
	/*
	 * On machines where all RAM is mapped into kernel address space,
	 * we can simply calculate the virtual address. On machines with
	 * highmem some memory is mapped into kernel virtual memory
	 * dynamically, so we need a place to store that address.
	 * Note that this field could be 16 bits on x86 ... ;)
	 *
	 * Architectures with slow multiplication can define
	 * WANT_PAGE_VIRTUAL in asm/page.h
	 */
#if defined(WANT_PAGE_VIRTUAL)
	void *virtual;			/* Kernel virtual address (NULL if
					   not kmapped, ie. highmem) */
#endif /* WANT_PAGE_VIRTUAL */
#ifdef CONFIG_WANT_PAGE_DEBUG_FLAGS
	unsigned long debug_flags;	/* Use atomic bitops on this */
#endif

#ifdef CONFIG_KMEMCHECK
	/*
	 * kmemcheck wants to track the status of each byte in a page; this
	 * is a pointer to such a status block. NULL if not tracked.
	 */
	void *shadow;
#endif
};

页面分配器(page allocator)

物理内存分配。linux系统的物理内存分配是建立在伙伴系统的基础之上的。系统初始化期间,伙伴系统负责对物理内存进行整理,跟踪哪些物理内存页面已经被占用,哪些是空闲的。
其他组件,通过访问伙伴系统,可以获取单独的,或者连续的多个物理页面。 驱动程序如果需要使用比较大的地址空间,可以利用这一层面的页面分配器提供的接口函数。这些函数,或者是宏,只能分配2的整数次幂个连续的物理页

下面给出mem_map – 物理内存页面 – 系统虚拟地址空间 之间的关系
linux -- 内存管理 -- 页面分配器_第3张图片
物理内存页面,被分为三个区域:ZONE_HIGHMEM, ZONE_NORMAL, ZONE_DMA。mem_map集合中,每个struct page
对象都与物理页面之间一一对应,所以mem_map也会被分为三个区域。(图中颜色相同的,对应同一个区)

在linux内核的初始化阶段,虚拟地址空间中 物理页面直接映射区域 会被映射到 ZONE_NORMAL和ZONE_DMA中。进内核后,可以直接通过页面分配器分配 物理页面直接映射这块区域的内存,因为这块区域对应的页表项已经建立好了。他们的内核虚拟地址和物理地址之间只是有个一差值(PAGE_OFFSET,也就是图中的0xC000_0000)。

如果页面分配器分配到的页面,落在ZONE_HIGHMEM中,此时内核是暂时没有对该页面进行映射的,因此,页面分配器的使用者,需要作一些前置操作:在内核虚拟地址空间的动态映射区,或者固定映射区,分配一个虚拟地址,然后建立映射,到这块区域的物理页面上。(内核已经提供了实现这些步骤的接口函数)

页面分配器所提供的接口函数,对于UMA和NUMA系统都是一样的。

核心成员:

  • alloc_pages
  • __get_free_pages

这两个函数最后都是会调用到alloc_pages_node,二者背后实现原理都是一样的
区别是__get_free_pages无法在高端内存区分配页面。

这两个函数有一些变体,这些变体只是调整了一些参数,然后换了个马甲。

gfp_mask

gfp_mask是这些页面分配函数的一个重要参数,决定了他们的分配行为,可以告诉内核应该到哪一个zone中分配物理内存页面。

/*
 * In case of changes, please don't forget to update
 * include/trace/events/mmflags.h and tools/perf/builtin-kmem.c
 */

/* Plain integer GFP bitmasks. Do not use this directly. */
#define ___GFP_DMA		0x01u
#define ___GFP_HIGHMEM		0x02u
#define ___GFP_DMA32		0x04u
#define ___GFP_MOVABLE		0x08u
#define ___GFP_RECLAIMABLE	0x10u
#define ___GFP_HIGH		0x20u
#define ___GFP_IO		0x40u
#define ___GFP_FS		0x80u
#define ___GFP_ZERO		0x100u
/* 0x200u unused */
#define ___GFP_DIRECT_RECLAIM	0x400u
#define ___GFP_KSWAPD_RECLAIM	0x800u
#define ___GFP_WRITE		0x1000u
#define ___GFP_NOWARN		0x2000u
#define ___GFP_RETRY_MAYFAIL	0x4000u
#define ___GFP_NOFAIL		0x8000u
#define ___GFP_NORETRY		0x10000u
#define ___GFP_MEMALLOC		0x20000u
#define ___GFP_COMP		0x40000u
#define ___GFP_NOMEMALLOC	0x80000u
#define ___GFP_HARDWALL		0x100000u
#define ___GFP_THISNODE		0x200000u
#define ___GFP_ACCOUNT		0x400000u
#define ___GFP_ZEROTAGS		0x800000u
#ifdef CONFIG_KASAN_HW_TAGS
#define ___GFP_SKIP_ZERO	0x1000000u
#define ___GFP_SKIP_KASAN	0x2000000u
#else
#define ___GFP_SKIP_ZERO	0
#define ___GFP_SKIP_KASAN	0
#endif
#ifdef CONFIG_LOCKDEP
#define ___GFP_NOLOCKDEP	0x4000000u
#else
#define ___GFP_NOLOCKDEP	0
#endif
/* If the above are modified, __GFP_BITS_SHIFT may need updating */

带有__下划线的宏留给内存管理部件内部使用,内核也利用这些内部宏定义了一些给其他模块使用的宏:

#define GFP_ATOMIC	(__GFP_HIGH|__GFP_KSWAPD_RECLAIM)
#define GFP_KERNEL	(__GFP_RECLAIM | __GFP_IO | __GFP_FS)
#define GFP_KERNEL_ACCOUNT (GFP_KERNEL | __GFP_ACCOUNT)
#define GFP_NOWAIT	(__GFP_KSWAPD_RECLAIM)
#define GFP_NOIO	(__GFP_RECLAIM)
#define GFP_NOFS	(__GFP_RECLAIM | __GFP_IO)
#define GFP_USER	(__GFP_RECLAIM | __GFP_IO | __GFP_FS | __GFP_HARDWALL)
#define GFP_DMA		__GFP_DMA
#define GFP_DMA32	__GFP_DMA32
#define GFP_HIGHUSER	(GFP_USER | __GFP_HIGHMEM)
#define GFP_HIGHUSER_MOVABLE	(GFP_HIGHUSER | __GFP_MOVABLE | __GFP_SKIP_KASAN)
#define GFP_TRANSHUGE_LIGHT	((GFP_HIGHUSER_MOVABLE | __GFP_COMP | \
			 __GFP_NOMEMALLOC | __GFP_NOWARN) & ~__GFP_RECLAIM)
#define GFP_TRANSHUGE	(GFP_TRANSHUGE_LIGHT | __GFP_DIRECT_RECLAIM)

最常用的是GFP_KERNEL与GFP_ATOMIC,如果不指定__GFP_HIGHMEM或者__GFP_DMA,默认就是__GFP_NORMAL,优先在ZONE_KERNEL里分配,其次是ZONE_DMA域。
GFP_DMA限制了页面分配器只能在ZONE_DMA中分配空闲的物理页面,用于分配DMA缓冲区的内存。

alloc_pages

/*
 * Allocate pages, preferring the node given as nid. When nid == NUMA_NO_NODE,
 * prefer the current CPU's closest node. Otherwise node must be valid and
 * online.
 */
static inline struct page *alloc_pages_node(int nid, gfp_t gfp_mask,
						unsigned int order)
{
	if (nid == NUMA_NO_NODE)
		nid = numa_mem_id();

	return __alloc_pages_node(nid, gfp_mask, order);
}

static inline struct page *alloc_pages(gfp_t gfp_mask, unsigned int order)
{
	return alloc_pages_node(numa_node_id(), gfp_mask, order);
}

负责分配2的order次方个连续的物理页面并返回其实页的struct page实例。传入gfp_mask如果没有指明__GFP_HIGHMEM,那么分配的物理页必然来自ZONE_NORMAL或者ZONE_DMA,这两个区域在内核初始化阶段就建立了映射关系。
内核模块可以使用page_address来获得对应页面的内核虚拟地址KVA。
ZONE_NORMAL和ZONE_DMA的PA和KVA之间是简单的线性映射关系,有一个PAGE_OFFSET差值:
page_address宏的实现原理:

unsigned long pfn = (unsigned long)(page - mem_map); //页帧
unsigned long pg_pa = pfn << PAGE_SHIFT; //获得页面所在的物理地址
return (void* )__va(pg_pa);	//KVA = PAGE_OFFSET + pg_pa

如果gfp_mask = __GFP_HIGHMEM,那么页分配器将有限在ZONE_HIGHMEM域中分配物理页,但也不排除因为ZONE_HIGHMEM没有足够的空闲页导致页面来自ZONE_NORMAL和ZONE_DMA。

新分配的来自高端物理区域的页面,由于内核还没在页表建立映射,所以需要:

  1. 在内核的动态映射区域分配一个KVA
  2. 操作页表,KVA 映射到该物理页面
    步骤2,内核已经实现了这种函数:kmap
    kmap/unkmap系统调用是用来映射高端物理内存页到内核地址空间的api函数
    arch/arm/mm/highmem.c
void *kmap(struct page *page)
{
	might_sleep();
	if (!PageHighMem(page)){//如果是低端内存,则直接返内存页对应的直接映射虚拟地址
		//printk("low mem page\n");
		return page_address(page);//所有的低端内存,在内核初始化时就已经映射好了,并且是不变得,且物理到虚拟相差0xc0000000
	}else{
		//printk("high mem page\n");
	}
	return kmap_high(page);//高端内存页
}

/**
 * kmap_high - map a highmem page into memory
 * @page: &struct page to map
 *
 * Returns the page's virtual memory address.
 *
 * We cannot call this from interrupts, as it may block.
 */
void *kmap_high(struct page *page)
{
	unsigned long vaddr;

	/*
	 * For highmem pages, we can't trust "virtual" until
	 * after we have the lock.
	 */
	lock_kmap();
	vaddr = (unsigned long)page_address(page);
	if (!vaddr)
		vaddr = map_new_virtual(page);		//建立MMU的页表项
	pkmap_count[PKMAP_NR(vaddr)]++;
	BUG_ON(pkmap_count[PKMAP_NR(vaddr)] < 2);
	unlock_kmap();
	return (void *) vaddr;
}
EXPORT_SYMBOL(kmap_high);

kmap在执行过程中可能会睡眠,不能用于中断上下文中。
涉及页表建立,开销比较大

kunmap函数拆除页表项中对page的映射,同时来自动态映射区的KVA被释放出去,使得KVA可以被用于映射其他的物理页面。

如果不想让kmap睡眠,可以使用kmap_atomic,原子执行,且比kmap快。

alloc_page 是 alloc_pages 在order=0时的简化形式,分配单个页面。

__get_free_pages

/*
 * Common helper functions. Never use with __GFP_HIGHMEM because the returned
 * address cannot represent highmem pages. Use alloc_pages and then kmap if
 * you need to access high mem.
 */
unsigned long __get_free_pages(gfp_t gfp_mask, unsigned int order)
{
	struct page *page;

	page = alloc_pages(gfp_mask & ~__GFP_HIGHMEM, order);
	if (!page)
		return 0;
	return (unsigned long) page_address(page);
}
EXPORT_SYMBOL(__get_free_pages);

函数注释里说的很清楚了,绝不要使用__GFP_HIGHMEM,因为返回的地址不会存在与高端内存页面。如果你要访问高端内存,那你就通过alloc_pages然后kmap这种路子吧
即使传入__GFP_HIGHMEM,也会将它mask掉 gfp_mask & ~__GFP_HIGHMEM

返回的是KVA

get_zero_page

分配物理页面,并以0填充。返回的是内核线性地址

__get_dma_pages

从ZONE_DMA区域分配物理页面,返回页面所在的内核线性地址

SLAB分配器

页面分配器分配出的内存粒度比较大,如果需要更细的粒度,比如几十,几百字节的,还得是SLAB分配器。slab是内核最早推出的小内存分配方案,slob和slub分配器则是内核在2.6版本新增的替代品,针对大型系统和嵌入式系统。
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