Gas 翻译成中文就是“燃气”,是以太坊世界的燃料,它决定了以太坊网络生态系统的正常运行。Gas 用来衡量执行某些动作需要多少“工作量”,这些“工作量”就是为了执行该动作支付给网络的费用额。通俗理解,Gas 是给矿工的佣金,并以 ETH 支付,无论是交易、执行智能合约并启动 DApps,还是支付数据存储费用,都需要用到 Gas。
以太坊在区块链上实现了一个运行环境,被称为以太坊虚拟机(EVM)。每个参与到网络的节点都会运行都会运行EVM作为区块验证协议的一部分。他们会验证区块中涵盖的每个交易并在EVM中运行交易所触发的代码。每个网络中的全节点都会进行相同的计算并储存相同的值。合约执行会在所有节点中被多次重复,这个事实得使得合约执行的消耗变得昂贵,所以这也促使大家将能在链下进行的运算都不放到区块链上进行。对于每个被执行的命令都会有一个特定的消耗,用单位gas计数。每个合约可以利用的命令都会有一个相应的gas值。gas使用ETH来支付。
以太坊的黄皮书gas消耗规则如下图:
gas、gasPrice都能由用户指定的,在测试私链中,这两个值的默认值会按照发送交易设置的最大值填充下一次交易值,若不指定,gas会默认最小值21000,gasprice决定交易被打包的优先级,一般根据自己的数据量和合约内容估计填写。
每个指令价目表https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1m89CVujrQe5LAFJ8-YAUCcNK950dUzMQPMJBxRtGCqs/edit#gid=0,
gasPrice 以Gwei为单位默认0.05 Gwei 当前区块GasPrice:60Gwei,见https://ethstats.net/
由两个部分组成: Gas limit(限制)* Gas Price(价格)
[] Gas Price 是 Gwei 的数量,是指用户愿意花费于每个 Gas 单位的价钱,frontier版 默认为 0.05 Gwei。
[] Gas Limit根据扮演角色的主客观区分,分为用户交易gaslimit(代码中通常记tx.Gas())与旷工区块gaslimit(代码中通常记herader.GasLimit)。
用户交易gaslimit:用户愿意为执行某个操作或确认交易支付的最大Gas量(最少21,000),至于花费这些Gas量是否能完成工作是不确定的。
每笔交易都被要求包括一个gas limit(有的时候被称为startGas)和一个gas。矿工可以有选择的打包这些交易并收取这些费用。在现实中,今天所有的交易最终都是由矿工选择的,但是用户所选择支付的交易费用多少会影响到该交易被打包所需等待的时长。如果该交易由于计算,包括原始消息和一些触发的其他消息,需要使用的gas数量小于或等于所设置的gas limit,那么这个交易会被处理。如果gas总消耗超过gas limit,那么所有的操作都会被复原,但交易是成立的并且交易费任会被矿工收取。区块链会显示这笔交易完成尝试,但因为没有提供足够的gas导致所有的合约命令都被复原。所以交易里没有被使用的超量gas都会以以太币的形式打回给交易发起者。因为gas消耗一般只是一个大致估算,所以许多用户会超额支付gas来保证他们的交易会被接受。这没什么问题,因为多余的gas会被退回给你。
以太坊关于交易的结构体,和其包含的Price、GasLimit:
type Transaction struct {
data txdata
// caches
hash atomic.Value
size atomic.Value
from atomic.Value
}
type txdata struct {
AccountNonce uint64 `json:"nonce" gencodec:"required"`
Price *big.Int `json:"gasPrice" gencodec:"required"`//用户为每个gas出单价
GasLimit uint64 `json:"gas" gencodec:"required"`//用户愿意支付的最大gas量
Recipient *common.Address `json:"to" rlp:"nil"` // nil means contract creation
Amount *big.Int `json:"value" gencodec:"required"`
Payload []byte `json:"input" gencodec:"required"`
// Signature values
V *big.Int `json:"v" gencodec:"required"`
R *big.Int `json:"r" gencodec:"required"`
S *big.Int `json:"s" gencodec:"required"`
// This is only used when marshaling to JSON.
Hash *common.Hash `json:"hash" rlp:"-"`
}
旷工区块gaslimit:区块gas limit是单个区块允许的最多gas总量,以此可以用来决定单个区块中能打包多少笔交易。
例如,我们有5笔交易的gas limit分别是10、20、30、40和50.如果区块gas limit是100,那么前4笔交易就能被成功打包进入这个区块。矿工有权决定将哪些交易打包入区块。所以,另一个矿工可以选择打包最后两笔交易进入这个区块(50+40),然后再将第一笔交易打包(10)。如果你尝试将一个会使用超过当前区块gas limit的交易打包,这个交易会被网络拒绝,你的以太坊客户端会反馈错误"交易超过区块gas limit"。
假如目前区块的gas limit是 4,712,357 gas,这表示着大约224笔转账交易(gas limit为21000)可以被塞进一个区块(区块时间大约在15-20秒间波动)。这个协议允许每个区块的矿工调整区块gas limit,任意加减 1/2024(0.0976%)。
以太坊关于区块gaslimit,包含在Header结构体中:
type Header struct {
ParentHash common.Hash `json:"parentHash" gencodec:"required"`
UncleHash common.Hash `json:"sha3Uncles" gencodec:"required"`
Coinbase common.Address `json:"miner" gencodec:"required"`
Root common.Hash `json:"stateRoot" gencodec:"required"`
TxHash common.Hash `json:"transactionsRoot" gencodec:"required"`
ReceiptHash common.Hash `json:"receiptsRoot" gencodec:"required"`
Bloom Bloom `json:"logsBloom" gencodec:"required"`
Difficulty *big.Int `json:"difficulty" gencodec:"required"`
Number *big.Int `json:"number" gencodec:"required"`
GasLimit uint64 `json:"gasLimit" gencodec:"required"`//区块gaslimit
GasUsed uint64 `json:"gasUsed" gencodec:"required"`//区块已用gas
Time *big.Int `json:"timestamp" gencodec:"required"`
Extra []byte `json:"extraData" gencodec:"required"`
MixDigest common.Hash `json:"mixHash" gencodec:"required"`
Nonce BlockNonce `json:"nonce" gencodec:"required"`
}
一个交易的实际交易费由两个因素组成:
gasUsed
:每个EVM中的命令都被设置了相应的gas消耗值。gasUsed是所有被执行的命令的gas消耗值总和。
gasPrice
:该交易中单位gas的价格(用以太币计算)
交易费 = gasUsed * gasPrice
因恶意用户不断的转移额度非常小的帐目,使得整个网络瘫痪,当交易的费用非常低时,可以忽略不计,因此以太坊引入了gas的概念,任何转账以及智能合约的执行,都要消耗一定的费用即gas,如果gas消耗完毕,则代码不再继续执行,这样防止恶意代码的for循环不停的执行,以至于整个网络无法继续向下一个状态迁移。因此我们知道任何计算,存储都是需要付出成本的,这样杜绝恶意攻击代码。
首先改变gas limit的途径有:
代码的的自动设定
每次开始打包的时候都会确定当前包Gaslimit的大小,以下函数确定大小
// CalcGasLimit computes the gas limit of the next block after parent.
// This is miner strategy, not consensus protocol.
func CalcGasLimit(parent *types.Block) uint64 {
// contrib = (parentGasUsed * 3 / 2) / 1024
contrib := (parent.GasUsed() + parent.GasUsed()/2) / params.GasLimitBoundDivisor
// decay = parentGasLimit / 1024 -1
decay := parent.GasLimit()/params.GasLimitBoundDivisor - 1
/*
strategy: gasLimit of block-to-mine is set based on parent's
gasUsed value. if parentGasUsed > parentGasLimit * (2/3) then we
increase it, otherwise lower it (or leave it unchanged if it's right
at that usage) the amount increased/decreased depends on how far away
from parentGasLimit * (2/3) parentGasUsed is.
*/
//当父区块Gas使用量>2/3的时候,会较上次加大gaslimit,反之减小
limit := parent.GasLimit() - decay + contrib
if limit < params.MinGasLimit {
limit = params.MinGasLimit
}
// however, if we're now below the target (TargetGasLimit) we increase the
// limit as much as we can (parentGasLimit / 1024 -1)
if limit < params.TargetGasLimit {
limit = parent.GasLimit() + decay
if limit > params.TargetGasLimit {
limit = params.TargetGasLimit
}
}
return limit
}
其中,targetGasLimit是代码中配置的GenesisGasLimit(现在是4712388)
从代码中的注释描述看意思是当父区块Gas使用量>2/3的时候,会较上次加大gaslimit,反之减小
根据这个公式Gaslimit是会缓慢增加的(当每次使用量都超过2/3的话),从etherscan上也可以看出现在的Gaslimit是800万左右,明显比GenesisGasLimit大了不少。
矿工通过命令行设定
以太坊上的矿工需要用一个挖矿软件,例如ethminer。它会连接到一个geth或者Parity以太坊客户端。Geth和Pairty都有让矿工可以更改配置的选项。这里是geth挖矿命令行选项以及Parity的选项,例如下:
Geth --gasprice 4000000000 --targetgaslimit 4712388
Parity --gas-floor-target 4712388 --gas-cap 9000000 --gasprice 4000000000
一个重要需要注意的事情是内部交易或者消息不包含gasLimit。因为gas limit是由原始交易的外部创建者决定的(也就是外部拥有账户)。外部拥有账户设置的gas limit必须要高到足够将交易完成,包括由于此交易而产生的任何”子执行”,例如合约到合约的消息。如果,在一个交易或者信息链中,其中一个消息执行使gas已不足,那么这个消息的执行会被还原,包括任何被此执行触发的子消息。不过,父执行没必要被还原。
不同的操作会产生不同的 Gas 成本。
Gas 用完时,矿工将停止执行。
如果有剩余 Gas,将立即退还给发起交易的人员或智能合约创建者。但是,如果用户设置的限制值太低,那么ta的交易被认为是无效的,并且会因为“Gas不足”错误而被取消,并且其中用于计算的 Gas 不会退到账户。所以无论交易是否通过,发送者总需要向矿工支付计算费用。
worker.go中:
func (self *worker) commitNewWork() {
self.mu.Lock()
defer self.mu.Unlock()
self.uncleMu.Lock()
defer self.uncleMu.Unlock()
self.currentMu.Lock()
defer self.currentMu.Unlock()
tstart := time.Now()
parent := self.chain.CurrentBlock()
tstamp := tstart.Unix()
if parent.Time().Cmp(new(big.Int).SetInt64(tstamp)) >= 0 {
tstamp = parent.Time().Int64() + 1
}
// this will ensure we're not going off too far in the future
if now := time.Now().Unix(); tstamp > now+1 {
wait := time.Duration(tstamp-now) * time.Second
log.Info("Mining too far in the future", "wait", common.PrettyDuration(wait))
time.Sleep(wait)
}
num := parent.Number()
header := &types.Header{
ParentHash: parent.Hash(),
Number: num.Add(num, common.Big1),
GasLimit: core.CalcGasLimit(parent),//打包区块时,根据父块的gas使用情况调整此次区块gaslimit大小
Extra: self.extra,
Time: big.NewInt(tstamp),
}
// Only set the coinbase if we are mining (avoid spurious block rewards)
if atomic.LoadInt32(&self.mining) == 1 {
header.Coinbase = self.coinbase
}
if err := self.engine.Prepare(self.chain, header); err != nil {
log.Error("Failed to prepare header for mining", "err", err)
return
}
// If we are care about TheDAO hard-fork check whether to override the extra-data or not
if daoBlock := self.config.DAOForkBlock; daoBlock != nil {
// Check whether the block is among the fork extra-override range
limit := new(big.Int).Add(daoBlock, params.DAOForkExtraRange)
if header.Number.Cmp(daoBlock) >= 0 && header.Number.Cmp(limit) < 0 {
// Depending whether we support or oppose the fork, override differently
if self.config.DAOForkSupport {
header.Extra = common.CopyBytes(params.DAOForkBlockExtra)
} else if bytes.Equal(header.Extra, params.DAOForkBlockExtra) {
header.Extra = []byte{} // If miner opposes, don't let it use the reserved extra-data
}
}
}
// Could potentially happen if starting to mine in an odd state.
err := self.makeCurrent(parent, header)
if err != nil {
log.Error("Failed to create mining context", "err", err)
return
}
// Create the current work task and check any fork transitions needed
work := self.current
if self.config.DAOForkSupport && self.config.DAOForkBlock != nil && self.config.DAOForkBlock.Cmp(header.Number) == 0 {
misc.ApplyDAOHardFork(work.state)
}
pending, err := self.eth.TxPool().Pending()
if err != nil {
log.Error("Failed to fetch pending transactions", "err", err)
return
}
txs := types.NewTransactionsByPriceAndNonce(self.current.signer, pending)
work.commitTransactions(self.mux, txs, self.chain, self.coinbase)
// compute uncles for the new block.
var (
uncles []*types.Header
badUncles []common.Hash
)
for hash, uncle := range self.possibleUncles {
if len(uncles) == 2 {
break
}
if err := self.commitUncle(work, uncle.Header()); err != nil {
log.Trace("Bad uncle found and will be removed", "hash", hash)
log.Trace(fmt.Sprint(uncle))
badUncles = append(badUncles, hash)
} else {
log.Debug("Committing new uncle to block", "hash", hash)
uncles = append(uncles, uncle.Header())
}
}
for _, hash := range badUncles {
delete(self.possibleUncles, hash)
}
// Create the new block to seal with the consensus engine
if work.Block, err = self.engine.Finalize(self.chain, header, work.state, work.txs, uncles, work.receipts); err != nil {
log.Error("Failed to finalize block for sealing", "err", err)
return
}
// We only care about logging if we're actually mining.
if atomic.LoadInt32(&self.mining) == 1 {
log.Info("Commit new mining work", "number", work.Block.Number(), "txs", work.tcount, "uncles", len(uncles), "elapsed", common.PrettyDuration(time.Since(tstart)))
self.unconfirmed.Shift(work.Block.NumberU64() - 1)
}
self.push(work)
}
func (env *Work) commitTransactions(mux *event.TypeMux, txs *types.TransactionsByPriceAndNonce, bc *core.BlockChain, coinbase common.Address) {
// 由于是打包新的区块中交易,所以将总 gasPool 初始化为 env.header.GasLimit
if env.gasPool == nil {
env.gasPool = new(core.GasPool).AddGas(env.header.GasLimit)
}
var coalescedLogs []*types.Log
for {
// If we don't have enough gas for any further transactions then we're done
// 如果当前区块中所有 Gas 消耗已经使用完,则退出打包交易
if env.gasPool.Gas() < params.TxGas {
log.Trace("Not enough gas for further transactions", "have", env.gasPool, "want", params.TxGas)
break
}
// Retrieve the next transaction and abort if all done
// 检索下一笔交易,如果交易集合为空则退出 commit
tx := txs.Peek()
if tx == nil {
break
}
// Error may be ignored here. The error has already been checked
// during transaction acceptance is the transaction pool.
//
// We use the eip155 signer regardless of the current hf.
from, _ := types.Sender(env.signer, tx)
// Check whether the tx is replay protected. If we're not in the EIP155 hf
// phase, start ignoring the sender until we do.
if tx.Protected() && !env.config.IsEIP155(env.header.Number) {
log.Trace("Ignoring reply protected transaction", "hash", tx.Hash(), "eip155", env.config.EIP155Block)
txs.Pop()
continue
}
// Start executing the transaction
env.state.Prepare(tx.Hash(), common.Hash{}, env.tcount)
// 执行交易
err, logs := env.commitTransaction(tx, bc, coinbase, gp)
switch err {
case core.ErrGasLimitReached:
// Pop the current out-of-gas transaction without shifting in the next from the account
// 弹出整个账户的所有交易, 不处理用户的下一个交易。
log.Trace("Gas limit exceeded for current block", "sender", from)
txs.Pop()
case core.ErrNonceTooLow:
// New head notification data race between the transaction pool and miner, shift
// 移动到用户的下一个交易
log.Trace("Skipping transaction with low nonce", "sender", from, "nonce", tx.Nonce())
txs.Shift()
case core.ErrNonceTooHigh:
// Reorg notification data race between the transaction pool and miner, skip account =
// 跳过这个账户
log.Trace("Skipping account with hight nonce", "sender", from, "nonce", tx.Nonce())
txs.Pop()
case nil:
// Everything ok, collect the logs and shift in the next transaction from the same account
coalescedLogs = append(coalescedLogs, logs...)
env.tcount++
txs.Shift()
default:
// Strange error, discard the transaction and get the next in line (note, the
// nonce-too-high clause will prevent us from executing in vain).
// 其他奇怪的错误,跳过这个交易。
log.Debug("Transaction failed, account skipped", "hash", tx.Hash(), "err", err)
txs.Shift()
}
}
if len(coalescedLogs) > 0 || env.tcount > 0 {
// make a copy, the state caches the logs and these logs get "upgraded" from pending to mined
// logs by filling in the block hash when the block was mined by the local miner. This can
// cause a race condition if a log was "upgraded" before the PendingLogsEvent is processed.
// 因为需要把log发送出去,而这边在挖矿完成后需要对log进行修改,所以拷贝一份发送出去,避免争用。
cpy := make([]*types.Log, len(coalescedLogs))
for i, l := range coalescedLogs {
cpy[i] = new(types.Log)
*cpy[i] = *l
}
go func(logs []*types.Log, tcount int) {
if len(logs) > 0 {
mux.Post(core.PendingLogsEvent{Logs: logs})
}
if tcount > 0 {
mux.Post(core.PendingStateEvent{})
}
}(cpy, env.tcount)
}
}
consense.go中:
// verifyHeader checks whether a header conforms to the consensus rules of the
// stock Ethereum ethash engine.
// See YP section 4.3.4. "Block Header Validity"
func (ethash *Ethash) verifyHeader(chain consensus.ChainReader, header, parent *types.Header, uncle bool, seal bool) error {
// Ensure that the header's extra-data section is of a reasonable size
if uint64(len(header.Extra)) > params.MaximumExtraDataSize {
return fmt.Errorf("extra-data too long: %d > %d", len(header.Extra), params.MaximumExtraDataSize)
}
// Verify the header's timestamp
if uncle {
if header.Time.Cmp(math.MaxBig256) > 0 {
return errLargeBlockTime
}
} else {
if header.Time.Cmp(big.NewInt(time.Now().Add(allowedFutureBlockTime).Unix())) > 0 {
return consensus.ErrFutureBlock
}
}
if header.Time.Cmp(parent.Time) <= 0 {
return errZeroBlockTime
}
// Verify the block's difficulty based in it's timestamp and parent's difficulty
expected := ethash.CalcDifficulty(chain, header.Time.Uint64(), parent)
if expected.Cmp(header.Difficulty) != 0 {
return fmt.Errorf("invalid difficulty: have %v, want %v", header.Difficulty, expected)
}
// Verify that the gas limit is <= 2^63-1
//校验是否区块gaslimt取值范围的最大阀值
cap := uint64(0x7fffffffffffffff)
if header.GasLimit > cap {
return fmt.Errorf("invalid gasLimit: have %v, max %v", header.GasLimit, cap)
}
// Verify that the gasUsed is <= gasLimit
if header.GasUsed > header.GasLimit {
return fmt.Errorf("invalid gasUsed: have %d, gasLimit %d", header.GasUsed, header.GasLimit)
}
// Verify that the gas limit remains within allowed bounds
//校验是当前块的gaslimit在允许的范围内
diff := int64(parent.GasLimit) - int64(header.GasLimit)
if diff < 0 {
diff *= -1
}
limit := parent.GasLimit / params.GasLimitBoundDivisor
if uint64(diff) >= limit || header.GasLimit < params.MinGasLimit {
return fmt.Errorf("invalid gas limit: have %d, want %d += %d", header.GasLimit, parent.GasLimit, limit)
}
// Verify that the block number is parent's +1
if diff := new(big.Int).Sub(header.Number, parent.Number); diff.Cmp(big.NewInt(1)) != 0 {
return consensus.ErrInvalidNumber
}
// Verify the engine specific seal securing the block
if seal {
if err := ethash.VerifySeal(chain, header); err != nil {
return err
}
}
// If all checks passed, validate any special fields for hard forks
if err := misc.VerifyDAOHeaderExtraData(chain.Config(), header); err != nil {
return err
}
if err := misc.VerifyForkHashes(chain.Config(), header, uncle); err != nil {
return err
}
return nil
}