《研究生英语科技论文写作》学习笔记

研究生英语科技论文写作
Academic Paper Writing For Postgraduates

引言
  科技论文写作能力是理工科研究生必须掌握的一项技能，其作用不止在于帮助研究生发表论文，完成毕业业绩，更多的是锻炼一个研究生的综合能力。
  学习和掌握好科技论文的写作方法、写作脉络和写作要点，不仅可以帮助我们写出内容充实、讨论全面、逻辑清晰的论文，也可以提高我们阅读文献的效率，按照每个章节的表达结构进行对照理解，可以迅速地抓取论文所表达的关键信息。与此同时，科技论文写作方法所涉及的内容也恰恰是科研过程中的思考方向，有助于培养研究生的逻辑思维能力。
  因此，笔者建议不仅是研究生需要尽快掌握科技论文写作方法，正在读大学的同学们也可以参照这门课程进行写作方面的训练，这项技能将一直为往后的学习工作赋能。

来源说明：本文的笔记来源于笔者学习慕课课程《研究生英语科技论文写作》时所做的笔记，课程链接：https://www.icourse163.org/course/USTB-1205798829?from=searchPage，或者在慕课上搜索“《研究生英语科技论文写作》”。

分享pdf版的笔记：https://pan.baidu.com/s/18jXm0QI5NqCPn7_ymvkHeQ，提取码：0h1b。

本笔记的作用以及使用意见：干货较多，笔记是精简版的内容，比较难以直接通过笔记掌握相关的知识点，建议读者通过“上网课、听老师解说、回答课后习题”的方式进行学习；本笔记的主要作用是能让读者回忆、核对相应的内容；比如笔者就通过打印出来的方式，分时段反复温习，写作时就对照知识点检查自己的表述是否充分；希望久而久之，这些知识点能真正内化为自己的技能。

1. Introduction to Academic Writing

Section 1: efficient reading academic texts

Three steps of reading a academic paper:

before reading:

1. think about your purposes in reading the text.
2. Look at the title, headline, any sub-headings, tables, figures or pictures. Use these to predict what the text will be about.
3. Think about what you already know about the topic.
4. Write down what you would like to find out from the text. Specify questions to which you would like to find answers.
5. Make a note of words and phrases related to the topic that you may find in the text.

during reading:

1. Scan the text: read the first and last paragraphs and the opening and closing sentences of the other paragraphs.
2. Identify your purpose in reading.
3. write down one or two sentences about the main ideas of the text, or your first impression of the text is.
4. PS: do you find it interesting, informative, well-argued or boring, illogical and inaccurate?
5. Fourthly, read the text again but in a careful and intensive way, marking any new words that are important for your understanding.
6. Important new words
7. Divide difficult sentence into segments.

After reading:

1. Make a list of the new words;
2. Evaluate what you have read;
3. Summarize the useful main points
4. Write down information & page numbers

Section 2: Writing good academic texts

Writing Strategies

1. Support your claims with evidence;
   ● evidence-based
   ● support arguments & claims with evidence
   ● relevant to discipline & through referring to work done by other scholars
2. Be impersonal
   ● present evidence & establish conclusions authoritatively by focusing on what was found
   ● remove themselves from the writing & should no directly address readers
   ● use language that is objective and eschews personal feeling
3. Be cautious
   ● to convey facts & information, to draw conclusions
   ● be particularly cautious when making claims
4. Use nominalization
   ● noun phrase constructions–nominalization
   ● to transform verbs(actions) into nouns
   ● avoid stating something obvious in a simplistic way
   choose emphasis

Section 3: Strategies for good academic writing

● Clearly defined:
  Having an obvious audience, a clear purpose, and either a research question to answer or a research project to report on.
● Clearly structured:
  linear——clear

 
Procedures:

1. Think about your subject academically
2. Brainstorming;
3. Go to the library and internet to find relevant books and articles
4. Study(skim and scan) the materials on your reading list
5. Read your list of materials from Step 4 in detail
6. Structure or organize what you have selected in Step 5
7. Write the draft
8. Discuss your first draft with your advisor and/or your classmates
9. Revise your first draft according to all the comments mad in step 8
10. Proofread your draft
11. After these 10 steps, produce a final version

Section 4: Tips for academic writing

● Be clear
● Guide your reader
● Structure your essay well
● Use the passive voice appropriately
● Punctuation
● Make connections and establish a clear sense of direction.

 

2. The Title

Section 1: Scientific Titles and Author Information

Scientific Title:
● the first aspect of a scientific paper
● introduces the research topic
● presents a miniature of the whole paper

Important Role:
● categorize and retrieve research articles
● be freely accessible to readers
● only after reading the title that readers decide whether or not to continue reading the whole article

Effective Title:
● descriptive and self-explanatory
● accurately highlight the core content of scientific papers
● inform the reader of the subject, the perspective, the major findings, the focus and the method of the study

effective reading of titles:
● help save time in information searching
● help obtain reliable and useful sources

The criteria of a good title:
1)Describe the content of the paper
2)Distinguish the paper from others on a similar topic
3)Catch the readers’ attention and interest
4)Match search queries

“The goal of scientific titles is the maximization of information content within a short compass, a compression that permits easy retrieval in computerized searches.”

Section 2: A Five-Step Reading Strategy

Step 1 Scan the title of the research article.
● is the title composed of a main title and a subtitle?
● What words do you not know in the title?
● What key words(verbs and nouns) does this title use?
● What do you know about the key words?

Step 2 Analyse the grammatical structure of the title.
● What is the grammatical structure of this title? A complete sentence? A noun phrase? Or a gerund?
● What is the sentence structure if it is a sentence?
● What is the head noun if it is a noun phrase? Are there any modifiers before or after the head noun? How do the modifiers specify the head noun?
● What is the research action specified if it is a gerund structure?

Step 3 Break the title down into pieces of information.
● What information is conveyed by the different parts of the structure?
● What does the title tell you about the content of the research?
● Does the title tell you anything about the research method, the research result, the research object, the problem addressed, or the location of field study?

Step 4 Paraphrase the title.
● What are the keywords or key phrases in the title?
● Which part of the title is emphasized?
● How do you expect to explain the content of the research?

Step 5 Refer to author information and the authors’ institutional affiliations.
● Who did the research?
● What institutions are they from?
● Are their affiliated institutions of high scientific reputation?

Section 3: Creating strong scientific titles

Importance of writing scientific titles:
● a critical component of the manuscript
● affect the first impression of journal editors and potential readers.

When to write the title:
● a working title at the beginning
● modify the working title constantly

Features of a good scientific title:
● using descriptive terms or phrases
● keeping the title short (typically 10-12 words) but specific and informative
● accurately highlighting the content of the research paper
● using key words that readers will search for
 
 
A Six-Step Writing Strategy:

1. Ask questions about the paper and take notes of the answers.
2. Use the answers to list keywords and key phrases.
3. Identify the most important aspects of your answers.
4. Draft a working title using your keywords.
5. Revise the working title to highlight the most important information
6. Delete non-essential information and rephrase the title in brief an descriptive phrases.

Give author information appropriately:
● List the names of all the authors and their institutional affiliations.
● Rank the authors according to their contribution
● Provide the email address of at least one of the authors so that interested readers can contact you.

Refer to target journal:
● The format may vary depending on the target journal in which the paper is published.
● You should study the format and requirements of that particular journal.

 

Section 4: A Six-Step Writing Strategy

1. Ask questions about the paper and take notes of the answers.
   ● What is the paper about, specifically?
   ● What is the research design and what methods are used?
   ● What/who is studied?
   ● What are the major findings?
2. Use the answers to list keywords and key phrases.
   ● What are the keywords and key phrases in the answers?
   ○ Go through the answers you have taken down in step1 and identify the keywords and key phrases that can describe your study.
3. Identify the most important aspects of your answers.
   ● What adds emphasis to your title?
   ○ identify the most important aspects in the keywords and key phrases you have taken down in step2.
4. Draft a working title using your keywords.
   ● Will you include every keyword?
   ○ Include in your working title the most important aspects you identified in step 3. Draft your working title in only one sentence.
5. Revise the working title to highlight the most important information
   ● How will you emphasize the most important information?
   ○ highlight the most important information by putting the main object or concept or action in the position of head nouns, and then elaborating with modifiers.
6. Delete non-essential information and rephrase the title in brief an descriptive phrases.
   ● Are there extra words or vague words that detract from the title’s highlight?
   ● Can you reduce the number of words to make the title short but informative?

Section 5: Don’ts in writing scientific title

1. Don’t be broad or vague；
   ● keep your title specific
   ● keep your title informative
     -A Solution with Electric Current
     -Propagation Speed of a Magnetic Flux-tube Solution with Electronic Current
2. Don’t use abbreviations, unless they are approved by your target journal
   ● The full term is more useful for keyword or key phrase searching.
   ● Idiosyncratic abbreviations might mislead or even confuse readers.
      √ Neural Network Computation with DNA Strand Displacement Cascades
3. Don’t use wordy fillers like “a study/research on”.
   ● weaken the strength of a title
   ● add bulk with no meaningful information
      x A study on the formation of peak rings in large impact craters
      √ The formation of peak rings in large impact craters
4. Don’t oversell your manuscript
   ● avoid terms such as “novel” or “first time”;
   ● red flags for reviewers and editors
   ● diminish the objectivity
5. Don’t try to be humorous or catchy.
   ● a very serious endeavor
   ● any injection of humor could appear to diminish the quality of the science.
6. Don’t make your titles too long and avoid redundancy
   ● state only the most important point in your research
   ● delete any repetitive or unnecessary words
7. Don’t be careless about the format
   ● Follow the practice of the target journal
     Capitalize all the words in the title except prepositions, articles and conjunctions

3. Scientific Abstracts and Keywords

Section 1: Scientific Abstracts and Keywords

Definition of a scientific abstract:
● an overview of a scientific paper
● essential elements of the original work
● standing alone

Purpose of a scientific abstract:
● stand-alone mini-texts
● screening devices for readers
● previews for readers
● indexing help

Types of scientific abstracts:
● Descriptive abstracts
● Informative abstracts

KEYWORDS:
● coming under abstracts
● representing important information items for literature indexes
● being specific and descriptive
● identifying the topic, focus and methods of the study

Section 2: Effective reading of scientific abstracts

Step 1 scan the abstract for general features
● the journal it comes from
● the discipline it is from
● the estimated number of words
● the keywords listed below
● the type of abstract it belongs to

Step 2 read the introduction section
● What is purpose of the study?
● What is the problem to be solved?
● What is the objective of the study?

Step 3 read the methods section
● study design
● specific steps the study follows
● variables or measurement tools used
● materials and statistics used and analyzed

Step 4 read the results section
● What are the major results or findings of the study?
● Are the findings significant? And how?

Step 5 read the conclusion section
● What do the findings actually mean?
● What are the implications of the study?
● Is there any theoretical or practical impact on the pertinent field of the-study?

Section 3: Creating effective scientific abstracts

ABCS of good abstracts:
● Accuracy: include essential information
● Brevity: use precise language
● Clarity: write in plain English

Function of effective abstracts:
● Help present complex information in a clear, concise manner
● Help conduct research
● Help write abstracts for future publications
● Help condense report information into a short format
Features of good abstracts:
● self-contained
● well-organized
● Introduction, Method(s), Result(s), and Conclusions
● proper use of verb tenses
● typical sentence patterns
How to select good keywords:
select keywords that are specific
avoid using words or terms in the title as keywords
check the Guide for Authors and follow the guideline appropriately

 
Using of tense:

● Present simple tense, (problem and purpose):
  e.g. The main problem of previous work is the conversion between simple continued fractions and binary numbers.
  e.g. The purpose of this study is to identify relationships between the physical and genetic characteristics of bones in mice.

● Past simple tense, (method and material):
  e.g. We developed a methodology for calculating a single estimate of soil ingestion for each subject for each day.

● Present simple tense, (results and findings):
  e.g. The results of simulations indicate that increase in fiber depth results in lower surface temperature, due to lower heating associated with induced surface current.
  e.g. The findings may be useful in treating medical conditions that are related to bone strength.

 

Section 4: Three steps to an effective scientific abstract

Step 1: Preparing to write the abstract
● Write the paper first
● Read through the paper
  ○ highlight important points
● identify keywords
● Review the guidelines for writing the abstract

Step 2: structuring the abstract
● Introduce the background
  ○ purpose, scope, problem
● Explain the methods
  ○ design, materials, statistics
● Describe the results
  ○ findings, significance, relevance
● Give the conclusion
  ○ interpretation, impacts, implications

Step 3: Polishing the abstract
● Correct weaknesses in organization and coherence
● Proofread it for correct language use

 

Section 5: Don’ts in writing scientific abstracts

1. Don’t provide lengthy background information
2. Don’t include irrelevant information
3. Don’t be too specific
4. Don’t include excessive numerical data and statistical results
5. Don’t write long sentences
6. Don’t use incomplete sentences or elliptical forms
7. Don’t include references or citations to other papers
8. Don’t use abbreviations or acronyms
9. Don’t use difficult jargon or terms
10. Don’t refer to figures or tables

 

4. The introduction

Section 1: Understanding an Academic Introduction

Aims of the introduction:
● lead the readers from a general subject area to a particular field of research
● show why the study was undertaken

Important information:
● what specific question(s) is the author trying to answer
● why this subject is of great importance and significance

Contents of an introduction
● the background to the problem
● a statement of the problem
● earlier studies of the problem and research gaps
● the significance of the topic
● the new approach to be adopted
● outcomes of the study
● an outline of the paper

 
Helpful questions:

1. How does the author introduce the study?
2. What earlier studies have there been and their shortcomings?
3. What is the specific problem studied in the paper?
4. How is the study important?
5. How will this study contribute to the understanding of this problem?
6. What approaches are used in the study?
7. What does the author imply about the possible findings?
8. How is the rest of the paper organized?

Most critical and valuable information:
● What the author is studying
● Why this research problem is important to investigate

 

Section 2: Effective Reading of Scientific Introduction

Strategies for introduction reading:

1. Understand the general background of the field
   ● What earlier studies of this issue are there?
   ● What are the weaknesses of existing studies?
   ● What areas remain to be explored?
   ● How does the author’s current research fi into this broader picture?
2. Identify specific questions addressed by this research.
   ● What is the aim of the current research?
   ● What specific questions does the author address?
   ● What unsolved problems does the author investigate?
3. Look closely for evidence of thy this research is being done.
   ● Why it is important and necessary to conduct the study?
   ● In what theoretical and practical ways is the current research significant?
4. Identify the new approach adopted by this study.
   ● What is the author’s perspective?
   ● What are the advantages of this approach?
   ● Why does the author employ this approach?
5. Understand the organization of the paper
   ● How is the paper organized?
   ● What different parts are included?
   ● How do these parts relate to each other?

 

Section 3: Creating an effective Academic Introduction

Key objectives of introduction:

1. to inform the reader about the study
   ● sketch out the study background
   ● relate your research to the earlier studies
   ● state the aims, objectives or purposes
2. o convince the reader that this study is important and valuable
   ● highlight the importance of your study
   ● state how your work can deal with the gaps
   ● what possible advances it may generate
   ● explain why your research is important
3. briefly state your methodology, indicate the potential outcomes
4. outline the structure of your paper

Organization of introduction:
● in a funnel shape or an inverted triangle; starts with a broad statement
● gets increasingly narrowed down to the specific problem(s)

 

Section 4: Strategies for writing an academic introduction

1. To orient your reader, briefly and selectively review the pertinent literature.
   ● What is the general background of the study?
   ● What are the most relevant existing studies?
   ● What are the major findings of existing studies?
   ● What are the limitations of existing studies?
2. Present the research problem with all possible clarity.
   ● What problems are you trying to address in your study?
   ● How do these problems relate to existing studies?
3. Convince the readers that this research is important and valuable.
4. Accurately state the objectives of the study.
   ● What is the ultimate goal of the current research?
   ● What objectives do you seek to accomplish?
   ● How can I adequately and accurately state the aims of the study?
5. Employ a neatly-organized structure

 

Section 5: Don’ts’ in writing academic introduction

1. Don’t get lost in the literature review
2. Don’t omit important work from the literature review
3. Don’t make claims that are too bold or ambitious.
4. Don’t use vague terminology, Avoid redundancy
5. Don’t use abbreviations or specialized terms without defining them first.
6. Don’t leave any room for criticism

 

5. The materials and methods

Section 1: Reading about the materials and methods

 
Aim: to show how the research was undertaken

1. how the experiment was designed
2. what samples and how they were prepared
3. how the data were collected
4. what techniques, analytical methods or approaches were adopted

Important Features: accuracy, clarity and adequacy

Content of the materials section:
● a detailed description of the materials used
● a description of the procedure
● analytical methods, techniques and approaches

Helpful Questions:
● Does this section contain enough information to allow others to repeat the study?
● Can this experimental design generate justified and valid research findings?

After the reading:
what the researchers did and how they did it
  ● when, where and how the study was carried out
  ● how the data were collected and analyzed

 

Section 2: Effective Reading of the Materials and Methods Section

Strategies for M & M Reading:

1. Identify the specific description of the materials used in the study
   ● Does the author describe the materials used in the study in sufficient detail?
   ● Are adequate quantitative details given?
   ● Can qualified research workers replicate the experiment on the basis of the information provided here?
2. Identify the specific techniques and methodology employed
   ● What techniques and methodology does the author employ?
   ● What are the advantages of using those techniques and that methodology?
   ● Why does the author adopt those techniques and that methodology rather than any others?
3. Be clear about the experiment procedure
   ● Is the experimental procedure described step by step?
   ● Does the author describe the procedure in adequate and succinct detail?
   ● Can the reader repeat the study by following the procedure?
4. Draw a diagram for each experiment to facilitate your understanding.

 

Section 3: Creating a Concise and Adequate Materials and Methods Section

Key Objective of M & M:
● describe how you undertook the study
● provide enough information to repeat the experiment

Contents of M & M
● the description of the samples and experimental design
● a description of the experimental procedures
● techniques and approaches
● an overview of the quantification and analyses

Tense and Voice:
  the past tense and the passive voice

Methodology:
● new methodology: described in considerable detail
● previous methodology: indicated by a reference
● modifications: should be described in detail

Important features: accuracy, clarity, adequacy

Other Names: Experimental, Experimental Section, Experimental Details, Experimental Procedure

Purpose of M & M:
● to evaluate what you have done
● repeat the study if necessary

 
Elements in the Methods section:

1. the general idea of the research
2. what tools were used
3. how to get results
4. how to organize data
5. explain or justify the rationale and limitations of the research method

 

Section 4: Strategies for writing a scientific materials and methods section

1. Describe the materials in a clear and precise way.
   ● exact technical specifications
   ● quantities
   ● source
   ● method of preparation
2. Provide sufficient detail to allow the work to be reproduced
3. Keep a balance between being concise and being complete
   ● Is any part of your detailed description redundant?
   ● Is your concise description adequate to enable the reader to repeat the study?
4. Be sure to follow the Instructions to Authors of your target journal
5. Organize this section logically and chronologically.

 

Section 5: ‘Don’ts’ in Writing a Materials and Methods Section

1. Don’t make general or vague descriptions of samples.
2. Don’t include considerably detailed description of published procedures or explanation of basic procedures.
3. Don’t use published methods without acknowledgment.
4. Don’t put results in this section.
5. Don’t give justification or rationale for your procedures.
6. Don’t include every single bit of detail of procedure.

 

6. The results and discussion

Section 1: Descriptive Results and Interpretive Discussion

● Describe the main facts and data
● Interpret the main results

Results and Discussion: Descriptive and interpretive（Significance, value and implication）

Framework:
● Separate presentation of R&D is very common;
● A clear and logical account

Reading Strategy:
● Three-step reading strategy for the Results
● Five-step reading strategy for Discussion

The module coverage:
● Understand descriptive Results and interpretive Discussion
● Recognize the concise, clear and complete captions

 

Section 2: Effective Reading of the Discussion

● Interpret the main results
● Explain the implications of the main findings
● Make suggestions for future research

Discussion main function:
● Answer the questions posed in the Introduction
● Explain how the results support the answers
● How the answers fit with existing knowledge on the topic

Five-Step Reading Strategy:

1. Identifying the logic of the Discussion
   ● Explanation about data value
   ● Comparing the results of the current study with the results of previous studies
   ● Discussing how the findings support or challenge the hypothesis
2. Identify the strength and limitations of the research findings in the Discussion
   ● Explanations given in the current study are robust
   ● Anticipate and answer for the readers’ questions and criticism
   ● Explanations for the limitations of the study
3. Consider what future directions this field of research might take
   ● Proposed studies that will confirm the present study’s findings
   ● Interpretations of unanswered questions and possible future directions of research
4. The Results and the related interpretation within the context of the bigger picture and whether it shows an appreciation of their in the wider implication.
   ● The wider implications
   ● Reasons why the wider implications matter
5. Combine the Conclusion with the Discussion

 

Section 3: Effective Reading of the Results

√ Find and observe the data
● Descriptive texts, self-explanatory tables figures, graphs or images
√ The texts and tables/figures are supposed to be complementary

Three-step reading strategy：

1. Scan how the Results are presented and how they are integrated with the text
   ● The text usually precedes tables or figures
   ● Check the table and figure titles and caption
2. Analyze the logical sequence of the Results
   ● The points that have been presented
   ● The order in which the points have been presented
   ● The way the data have been organized
   ● The integration of texts and tables/figures
3. Identifying the individual function of each segments in the Results
   ● Do the main results answer the research questions?
   ● Do the results verify or contradict the research aim？
   ● What is included in the table & figure captions?

 
What are the qualities of a well-written Results?

1. It should be factual: Every report should be based on facts, verified information and valid proofs.
2. Clear and Easily understandable: Explained below
3. Free from errors and duplication
4. Should facilitate the decision makers in making the right decision:
5. Result focused and result oriented
6. Well organized and structured；Ethical reporting style

 

Section 4: Strong Results and Discussion

Present and interpret the main results of the research:
● Important findings；
● Unexpected results；
● Expected ones
● Concise but informative；
● Self-explanatory
● Begin with text, not tables or figures
● Match the restatement with the statement of purpose in the introduction
● Acknowledge any limitations；
● Bigger picture
● Alternative explanations for the findings

 
Results and Discussion Main Tenses:

1. Use the past tense to detail the results you obtained
   ● …revealed…; …tripled…
2. While talking about what the data in front of you in the form of figures and diagrams suggest, use the present tense
   ● …shows…; …reveals…
3. Discussion: Use the present tense to talk about the meaning of the research results
   ● …appears…;
4. Use the past tense to report the results themselves；
   ● …increased…;

Module coverage:
● Present main results and discussion
● Demonstrate how results verify or contradict a hypothesis
● Acknowledge limitations and alternative perspectives
● Use illuminating and informative expressions to do so.

 

Section 5: Writing a Strong Discussion

● Keep concise
● State, support, explain and defend your answers and discuss other important or relevant issues
● Commentary

Discussion organization:
● Develop an outline to organize your thoughts: A cluster map、An issue tree、Numbering

 
Four-step writing strategy:

1. Develop the interpretation of the results
   ● Main findings
   ● Interesting findings
2. Interpret the strengths and weaknesses of study
   ● the limitations of the study in order to identify the way forward for further productive research
3. Discuss the wider implications of your study and indicate possible future avenues of research
   ● Narrow perspective to bird’s view of the field
   ● Significance and suggestions
4. Place your research within a wider context a restate the main points
   ● A restatement of the core contribution of the study is what the readers and editors expect at the end of the Discussion

 

Section 6: Three steps to writing up the Results

● Three-step strategy
● Develop a general outline
● Polish your Results

 
Three-step writing strategy:

1. Construct an outline of the Results
   ● Major topics of aspects
   ● Categorize and prioritize the data
   Present the data in a clear, concise and self-explanatory way
2. Compose table and figure captions that are specific and informative
   ● Nominal phrase；Structure and logic
   ● Captions structure and logic；Examples:
   ● A: Figure 1 Decrease in the Rate of Self-Exchange with the Polarity of the Solvent；B: Figure 1 Measurement of Rates
   ● A: Figure 2 Motion of a parcel of air as it flows across a mountain；B: Figure 2 Air flow；Elements:
   ● What were the conditions or circumstances under which the data were obtained?
   ● How was the experiment performed?
3. Compose the Results text in a concise and clear way, and arrange all the data in their proper place
   Results should start with text
   Table captions should be placed above the table
   Figure caption should be placed below the figure
   To help readers understand the data, a simple explanation of the data is acceptable

 

Section 7: ‘Don’t’ in writing strong Results and Discussion

1. Don’t move from one tense to another without good reason;
     ● …shows…; …had…
2. Don’t introduce subjectivity or overstate your case, Keep it scientific, leave personal feelings out of it.
3. Don’t make assumptions. Unwarranted speculation should also be avoided.
4. Don’t include too much information in the Results. Brief explanation is acceptable.
     ● The main interpretation should be done in the Discussion
5. Don’t present the raw data from the experiment, Main data is enough
6. Don’t over-present the Results

 

7. Conclusion

Section 1 The Conclusion

● The value of the study
● Research question with new insight
● Main findings of the paper

A well-structured conclusion:
● Look ahead to future
● Consider broader implications
● Make new connections

Strong Conclusion Suggestion:
● Link interpretations directly to main findings and hypotheses discussed earlier in the paper

Logical outgrowth of the results:
● Independent section
● An embedded section
● Clear, concise and short

Conclusion tense:
● Past: Summarize the work undertaken
● Present: Draw conclusions that the writer considers she/he ● has established as eternally true

The module coverage:
● Identify the features and structures of the Conclusion
● Recognize the main points of the Conclusion
● Distinguish the tenses used in the Conclusion

 

Section 2 Effective reading of the conclusion

● Present information in a format that demonstrates the major results
● Clarify what should not be concluded from the results
● Explain the imlications and give suggestions for how to use the information

What conclusion provides
● In-depth analysis of the findings
● Give readers a sense for what use they should make of the ● information
● Four-step

Four-step reading strategy:

1. Identify the main results or the key points
   ● In the order in which they appear in the Discussion
   ● The connection between the main results and others in previous studies
   ● The main conclusion drawn
   ● Relevance to the reader’s field of interest
2. Identify insights arising out of the research
   ● Consequences of a strong idea
   ● Implications of conflicting data
   ● Significance of the study
3. Identify a course of action, a solution to an issue or questions of further study
   ● Limitations of the data, methods or results
   ● Overcome the limitations
   ● Future studies to lead to further progress
4. Identify the broader implications of the study and place the findings in a wider context

 

Section 3 Creating a strong scientific Conclusion

Summarize the paper’s main findings:
● Assess general importance
● Discuss ambiguous data
● Recommend further research

Different types of conclusions:
● Be part of the Discussion
● A separate section

The function of the scientific conclusion:
● Restate the main argument
● Strengths of the argument
● Reiterate the most important evidence supporting the argument
● A forum for writers to persuasively and succinctly restate the thesis

Conclusion general guide
● The significance of the main findings
● The implications of the conclusions for this topic and for the field more broadly
● The limitations of the study
● Factors relevant to the topic but fall outside the scope of the paper
● Suggestion for future research

Conclusion coverage:
● Analysis, composition and evalution of a scientific Conclusion
● Express information of significance clearly
● Create a sound, concise and original Conclusion

Differences between Results, Discussion, and Conclusion:
  ● Results is a presentation of the data. There should not be any discussion in the results section (that goes in the discussion section). The results need to be presented in enough detail for someone not familiar with the scientific paper to understand them.
  ● Discussion unrolls the main results, explain their meanings. Put there the new questions and perspectives, describe the most interesting points for the entire field. Define the possible answers, write down why and how and what for, your suggestions.
  ● Conclusion is a summary of the discussion or the whole work. You can put there the main points and results, their factual meaning for the field and a possible further direction. I like to describe this as "discussion’s points and facts without the discussion.

 

Section 4 Four steps to a strong scientific conclusion

Writing a strong conclusion: To synthesize, analyze and reason

 
Four-step writing strategy:

1. Begin with a clear and concise statement of the pricipal findings
   ● What does the data tell us?
   ● What does the data not tell us?
   ● Does the Conclusion bring the whole paper together?
2. Elaborate on the implications or consequences findings
   ● e.g. Data suggest/indicate that…
   ● e.g. in contrast
   ● e.g. This study strengthens the idea that…
3. Comment on the limitation of the study or the need for / direction of further research
   ● Integrate the limitations of the study into the recommendations
   ● A statement of the need for or direction of further research is usually expected by the reader and the editor
4. Strive for accurace and originality
   ● Don’t overuse the transitional words;
   ● Originality is desirable but only if it can be achieve honestly and with accuracy.

 

Section 5 ‘Don’t’ in writing a scientific conclusion

1. Ignore negative results
2. Make statements that are too broad or unspecific
3. Draw conclusions not supported by the given evidence
4. Focus too much on problems and not solutions
5. Don’t overload the reader with too much information
6. Don’t under-develop the interpretation
7. Don’t forget to check for cohesion of logical flow
8. Don’t bring in new materials or ideas at this point