1. Cross-sectional survey/panel survey
They are both research methods but they are different. A cross-sectional study involves looking at people who differ on one key characteristic at one specific point in time. The data is collected at the same time from people who are similar in other characteristics but different in a key factor of interest such as age, income levels, or geographic location. Participants are usually separated into groups known as cohorts.
Panel studies are a particular design of the ongitudinal study in which the unit of analysis is followed at specified intervals over a long period, often many years. The key feature of panel studies is that they collect repeated measures from the same sample at different points in time.
2.demographic analysis/ proportionality factor
The demographic explanation is a two-component theoretical structure, it includes the numbers of people and a proportionality factor. The proportionality factor is the behavior rates of each category of the type of people the more it varies, the stronger the prediction.In demographic explanations, one set of causal processes determines a proportionality factor by which these numbers of people are multiplied to get the effective causal force.
3.pollster’s snapshot/ measuring the sample subjects’ changing characters
The poster who takes a “snapshot” of the population at a given time is not really measuring the ephemeral and changing characteristics of individuals. Instead, he is measuring the sample subjects’ changing characters (a balance of causal forces characterizing the group), which is usually much more stable and reliable than the characteristics of individuals.
4.Satisfaction formula/achievement
Satisfaction=achievement/aspiration. This formula alerts us to the proposition that an individual’s level of satisfaction is always, at any moment of his life, a ratio between his aspirations and his achievements. A person with low achievement may be satisfied if his aspirations are equally low. A person with high achievement may still be dissatisfied if his aspirations far exceed his achievements.
5.Functional causal imagery/equifinality
Functional causal imagery is indicated whenever one sees (or thinks he sees) a pattern of equifinality in social phenomena. Equifinality is that various means are perceived to lead to the same that.
6.historical analysis of XYD/ Delayor
By a historicist explanation, one in which an effect created by causes at some previous period becomes a cause of that same effect in succeeding periods. We can diagram this casual structure as below:
X is an original historical cause of y, d stands for a “delayor” so that y at a given time operates as a cause in the following time period, and the I on the returning arrow indicates that y as a cause in the succeeding period reproduces itself as an effect. The infinite loop created by the D and I arrow gives the historicist causal structure its distinctive features.
7.Lerner’s frustrations/ Robert Hornik’s implicit assumptions
Tests of hypotheses applied to a general population are ambiguous when this subpopulation is not specifically examined. It will be useful to break down this prediction into a series of assumptions and logically subsumed predictions and to consider the evidence for each.
Implicit assumptions are the premise for Lerner’s theory, which includes 1. a significant population whose media exposure is increasing more rapidly than its material achievement. 2. exposure to the media implies exposure to information about different lifestyles and unknown material goods.3.the active role of the audience in choosing not only what it will listen to, but, even more important, how it will use what it chooses to hear. 4. many will be excited by what they hear.
8.Ethnography/Oral historical project
The nature of ethnography allows the researcher to become a participant-observer and become accustomed to the informant’s lifestyle through repetitive observation and imitation. Questions for the informant will ideally stem from these meticulous observations. By using the method of oral history, the historian remains a detached observer and is rarely able to view certain events or thoughts through the eyes of the informant. Put most simply, unlike ethnographer, an oral historian can only make use of what the informant reveals to them. While ethnography can paint a picture of these environments, oral history can efficiently and truthfully present and validate their narratives, a process that has rarely occurred throughout history.
9. systematic forces/ idiosyncratic forces
If we have a good theory of the systematic forces, the average of these idiosyncratic forces will be zero. As the size of the population increases, the influence of the unknown individual idiosyncratic behavior decreases.
10.randomization/control of not related variables
Control of not related variables through randomization is one of the main four methods of establishing nonspuriousness. In control of through randomization, one provides some sort of a list of the possible observed values of spurious variables and then chooses values from this list according to some random process for observation.
1. the causal connection between S and H is that S tends to maintain H.
2. if H is a powerful variable, such as we would expect powerful selective effects (larger K), if, on the other hand, H is the variable of … we would expect it to have a small selective effect (small K). This is merely saying that maintain social variables which are very important to happiness or survival will tend to select structures that maintain them very strongly. Variables of smaller importance will have much weaker effects in encouraging functional structures.
3.C indicates how effective the maintenance of S on H
4.since K is negative, when K becomes large and large in the formula, the denominator of this formula increases so the transmittance decreases.
5. the loop transmittance of a loop with an operator A may easily be shown to be 1/(1-A), in our case, this operator would clearly be 1/(1-KC2)
18.The proportionality factor is the behavior rates of each category of type of people,the more it varies,the stronger the prediction.The sample representation is stronger only when the differences in gender, race, education, income, and geographic location are considered as much as possible.
2.Nixon was leading by a narrow margin. A great deal of the stability of social phenomena depends on equilibria of forces of change. However,the proportionality forces of religion have been changed by other factors such as television debate. In 1960, the first presidential election television debate in American history kicked off in the confrontation between Kennedy and Nixon. According to opinion polls, more than half of the voters were affected by the TV debate, and 6% claimed to be the TV debate to make their final decision. This debate was indeed a major turning point in the 1960 campaign.