【北邮国院大四上】Business Technology Strategy 企业技术战略

北邮国院电商大四在读，本笔记仅为PPT内容的整理与翻译，并不代表本课程的考纲及重点，仅为本人复习时方便阅读与思考之作。

写在前面

大家好，欢迎来到大学期间的最后一门课程，本门课程是中方课，所以很庆幸的是相对来说我们不需要背诵太多的概念（like企管/产开）更多的是理解。本门课程是着重从企业的视角来看创新、发展、营销等等各种方面，可以作为一个商科的综述性课程来看，重在理解，真正的去理解什么是什么，为什么要这么做，才能在论述题里真的有东西去说。更多的还是建议大家自己去看PPT，PPT的备注里对很多东西有更详细的解释，我也把部分我觉得很有用的放在了本篇内容里。商科的内容更多的是看你的理解、逻辑与思考，所以请各位复习的时候把重点放在理解上，用任课老师的话说，叫“考你的高阶思想”。
最后，这应该是我关于北邮学习方面的倒数第二篇文章，最后一篇我会把PPT里一些明确定义的terms整理出来，方便大家理解记忆。以及欢迎各位想跟我继续交流或者单纯想认识一下的朋友们私信我要微信或者直接微信来找我就行，很期待认识各位。
以上。我们开始吧。

Source of Innovation

1. Firms
2. Individuals
3. Private Nonprofits 私人非营利组织
4. Government-Funded Research 政府资助的研究
5. Universities

Individual Creativity

Individual creativity is a function of:

• Intellectual abilities (e.g., ability to articulate ideas) 智力能力(例如，表达想法的能力)
• Knowledge (e.g., understand field, but not wed to paradigms) 知识(例如，理解领域，但不与范式结合)
• Style of thinking (e.g., choose to think in novel ways) 思维方式(例如，选择以新颖的方式思考)
• Personality (e.g., confidence in own capabilities) 个性(例如，对自己能力的信心)
• Motivation (e.g., rely on intrinsic motivation) 动机(例如，依赖内在动机)
• Environment (e.g., support and rewards for creative ideas) 环境(例如，对创意的支持和奖励)

Translating Creativity into Innovation

Research and Development by Firms【两种】

• Basic research
  • Research targeted at increasing scientific knowledge for its own sake. It may or may not have any long-term commercial application. 研究的目的是为了增加科学知识。它可能有也可能没有任何长期的商业应用。
  • aims at increasing understanding of a topic or field without an immediate commercial application in mind. 旨在增加对主题或领域的理解，而不考虑立即的商业应用。
• Applied research
  • Research targeted at increasing knowledge for a specific application or need. 以增加特定应用或需求的知识为目标的研究。
  • aims at increasing understanding of a topic or field to meet a specific need 旨在增进对某一主题或领域的理解，以满足特定需求

Valley of Death

创新成果从实验室到市场化的历程常被称为“死亡之谷”

How to cross the Valley of Death?

Science Push&Demand Pull

Science Push approaches suggest that innovation proceeds linearly:

“科学推动”方法表明，创新是线性进行的:

• Scientific discovery -> invention -> manufacturing -> marketing 科学发现→发明→制造→营销

Demand Pull approaches argued that innovation originates with unmet customer need:

需求拉动方法认为，创新源于未满足的客户需求:

• Customer suggestions -> invention -> manufacturing 客户建议->发明->制造

Most current research argues that innovation is not so simple, and mavoriginate from a variety of sources and follow a variety of paths.

目前的大多数研究都认为，创新并不是那么简单，创新的来源和路径多种多样。

Firm Linkages with Customers, Suppliers, Competitors, and Complementors

企业与顾客、供应商、竞争者和互补者的联系

Most frequent collaborations are between firm and their customers, suppliers, and local universities

最常见的合作发生在公司和他们的客户、供应商以及当地大学之间

Producers of complementary goods or services (e.g., for video game console producers such as Sony or Nintendo, game developers) are complementors.

互补性商品或服务的生产者(例如，索尼或任天堂等视频游戏机生产商，游戏开发商)是互补者。

External versus Internal Sourcing of Innovation

创新的外部来源与内部来源

• External and internal sources are complements 外部资源和内部资源是互补的
• Firms with in-house R&D also heaviest users of external collaboration networks 拥有内部研发的公司也是外部协作网络的最大用户
• In-house R&D may help firm build absorptive capacity that enables it to better use information obtained externally. 内部研发可以帮助企业建立吸收能力，使其能够更好地利用外部获得的信息。

Absorptive capacity: The ability of an organization to recognize, assimilate, and utilize new knowledge.

吸收能力:组织识别、吸收和利用新知识的能力。

Universities and Government-Funded Research（创新的来源之一）

Universities

• Many universities encourage research that leads to useful innovations 许多大学鼓励能带来有用创新的研究
• Bayh-Dole Act of 1980 allows universities to collect royalties on inventions funded with taxpayer dollars 1980年的Bayh-Dole法案允许大学对用纳税人的钱资助的发明收取版税
  • Led to rapid increase in establishment of technology-transfer offices. 导致技术转让办事处的建立迅速增加。
• Revenues from university inventions are still very small, but universities also contribute to innovation through publication of research results. 大学发明的收入仍然很小，但大学也通过发表研究成果为创新做出贡献。

TTO: Technology transfer offices Offices designed to facilitate the transfer of technology developed in a research environment to an environment where it can be commercially applied.

TTO:技术转移办公室旨在促进在研究环境中开发的技术向可进行商业应用的环境的转移。

Governments invest in research through:

• Their own laboratories 他们自己的实验室
• Science parks and incubators 科技园及企业孵化器
• Grants for other public or private research organizations 其他公共或私人研究机构的资助

Innovation in Collaborative Networks

As the previous sections indicate, there is a growing recognition of the importance of collaborative research and development networks for successful innovation

正如前几节所指出的，人们越来越认识到协作研究和开发网络对成功创新的重要性

Collaborations include (but are not limited to):

合作包括(但不限于):

• Joint ventures 合资企业：由两个或多个公司共同组建的企业，旨在共同开展特定的商业活动或项目。
• Licensing and second-sourcing agreements 许可和二次采购协议
• Research associations 研究协会：由一群研究人员组成的组织，旨在促进某个特定领域的研究和发展。
• Government-sponsored joint research programs 政府资助的联合研究项目
• Value-added networks for technical and scientific exchange 科技交流增值网络
• Informal networks 非正式网络

Collaborative research is especially important in high-technology sectors where individual firms rarely possess all necessary resources and capabilities

在个别公司很少拥有所有必要资源和能力的高科技部门，合作研究尤其重要

As firms forge collaborative relationships, they weave a larger network that influences the diffusion of information and other resources.

随着企业建立合作关系，它们编织了一个更大的网络，影响信息和其他资源的扩散。

The size and structure of this network changes over time due to changes in alliance activity

由于联盟活动的变化，该网络的规模和结构会随着时间的推移而变化

就像这样：

因为某些原因，从1995年的大集群，变成2000年这样围绕在某几个核心的企业

【可参考https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272505365_Technology_Shocks_Technological_Collaboration_and_Innovation_Outcomes

】

Technology Clusters are regional clusters of firms that have a connection to a common technology

技术集群是指与一种共同技术有联系的企业的区域性集群

• May work with the same suppliers, customers, or complements. 可能与相同的供应商、客户或互补者合作。
• Agglomeration Economies: 集聚经济：指企业、产业或人口在一定区域内集中分布所产生的经济效益，包括降低生产成本、提高生产效率等方面的优势。
  • Proximity facilitates knowledge exchange. 接近有助于知识交流。
  • Cluster of firms can attract other firms to area. 企业集群可以吸引其他企业入驻。
  • Supplier and distributor markets grow to service the cluster. 供应商和分销商市场为集群服务。
  • Cluster of firms may make local labor pool more valuable by giving them experience. 企业集群通过给予当地劳动力经验，使其更有价值。
  • Cluster can lead to infrastructure improvements (e.g., better roads, utilities, schools, etc.) 集群可以导致基础设施的改善(例如，更好的道路，公用事业，学校等)。

Well-known regional clusters such as Silicon Valley’s semiconductor firms, lower Manhattan’s multimedia cluster, and the Modena, Italy, knitwear district…

著名的区域集群，如硅谷的半导体公司，曼哈顿下城的多媒体集群，和摩德纳，意大利，针织品区…

Types of Innovation

Four of the dimensions most commonly used to categorize innovations are described here:

下面描述了最常用于对创新进行分类的四个维度:

Product innovation versus Process innovation

产品创新与流程创新

What is a product innovation for one organization might be a process innovation for another

一个组织的产品创新可能是另一个组织的流程创新

• E.g., UPS creates a new distribution service (product innovation) that enables its customers to distribute their goods more widely or more easily (process innovation) 例如，UPS创造了一种新的分销服务(产品创新)，使其客户能够更广泛或更容易地分销他们的货物(流程创新)。

Radical Innovation versus Incremental Innovation

激进创新与渐进式创新

The radicalness of an innovation is relative; it may change over time or with respect to different observers.

创新的激进性是相对的;它可能会随着时间或不同的观察者而改变。

• E.g., digital photography a more radical innovation for Kodak than for Sony 例如，数码摄影对柯达来说是一项比索尼更激进的创新
  

Competence-Enhancing Innovation versus Competence-Destroying Innovation

增强能力的创新vs破坏能力的创新

Architectural Innovation versus Component Innovation

架构创新与组件创新

Several dimensions are used to categorize innovations

Technological innovations – based on specific technology, invention, discovery

技术创新-基于特定的技术，发明，发现

Non Technological innovations – Service innovation, Business Model innovation

非技术创新-服务创新，商业模式创新

Social innovations – in critical historic periods more important than technological ones (mail, educational systém, social systém, health care

社会创新——在关键的历史时期比技术创新更重要(邮件、教育系统、社会系统、医疗保健)

Innovation type matrix

Innovation categories

sustaining – better products that can be sold with higher margin to demanding customers; incumbents win

持续——更好的产品，可以以更高的利润率卖给要求高的客户;现任者获胜

disruptive – commercialization of simpler, more userfriendly products, which are cheaper and targeted to new or less demanding customers; new entrants win

颠覆性-将更简单、更易于使用的产品商业化，这些产品更便宜，针对新的或要求较低的客户;新进入者胜出

The Disruptive Innovation Model

This diagram contrasts product performance trajectories (the red lines showing how products orservices improve over time) with customer demand trajectories (the blue lines showing customerswillingness to pay for performance). As incumbent companies introduce higher-quality products orservices (upper red line) to satisfy the high end of the market (where profitability is highest), they overshoot the needs of low-end customers and many mainstream customers. This leaves an opening forentrants to find footholds in the less-profitable segments that incumbents are neglecting. Entrants ona disruptive trajectory (lower red line) improve the performance of their offerings and move upmarket (where profitability is highest for them, too) and challenge the dominance of the incumbents.

这张图表对比了产品性能轨迹(红线表示产品或服务如何随着时间的推移而改进)和客户需求轨迹(蓝线表示客户为性能付费的意愿)。随着现有公司推出更高质量的产品或服务(红线上方)来满足高端市场(利润率最高)，它们超出了低端客户和许多主流客户的需求。这给新进入者留下了一个机会，他们可以在现有企业忽视的利润较低的领域找到立足点。处于颠覆性轨迹(红线下)的新进入者提高了产品的性能，并向高端市场(对他们来说利润率也最高)进军，挑战了现有企业的主导地位。

反正就是先抓住低端市场或者利基niche市场，然后再逐渐往高端走，类似小米的感觉

What are the Key elements of disruption ?

Closed innovation & Open innovation

Evolution of Innovation

Technology S-Curves

The path a technology follows through time is termed its technology trajectory.

一项技术在时间上遵循的路径被称为它的技术轨迹。

Technology trajectories are most often used to represent the technology’s rate of performance improvement or its rate of adoption in the marketplace.

技术轨迹最常用于表示技术的性能改进速度或其在市场中的采用率。

Both the rate of a technology’s improvement, and its rate of diffusion to the market typically follow an s-shaped curve.

一项技术的改进速度及其向市场扩散的速度通常都遵循s形曲线。

When a technology’s performance is plotted against the amount of effort and money invested in the technology, it typically shows slow initial improvement, then accelerated improvement, then diminishing improvement.

当一项技术的性能与投入该技术的努力和金钱进行对比时，它通常会显示出缓慢的初始改进，然后加速改进，然后递减改进。

• Technology improves slowly at first because it is poorly understood. 一开始，技术进步缓慢，因为人们对它知之甚少。
• Then accelerates as understanding increases. 然后随着理解的增加而加速。
• Then tapers off as approaches limits. 然后在接近极限时逐渐减少。

One of the more well-known technology trajectories is described by an axiom that became known as Moore’s law. In 1965, Gordon Moore, cofounder of Intel, noted that the density of transistors on integrated circuits had doubled every year since the integrated circuit was invented. That rate has since slowed to doubling every 18 months, but the rate of acceleration is still very steep

最著名的技术发展轨迹之一是由摩尔定律描述的。1965年，英特尔(Intel)联合创始人戈登·摩尔(Gordon Moore)指出，自集成电路发明以来，集成电路上的晶体管密度每年都翻一番。自那以来，这一速度已放缓至每18个月翻一番，但加速速度仍然非常陡峭

Technologies do not always get to reach their limits

技术并不总能达到极限

May be displaced by new, discontinuous technology.

可能被新的、不连续的技术所取代。

• A discontinuous technology fulfills a similar market need by means of an entirely new knowledge base. 一个不连续的技术通过一个全新的知识库来满足类似的市场需求。
  • E.g., switch from carbon copying to photocopying, or vinyl records to compact discs 例如，从碳复印转向影印，或黑胶唱片转向光盘
  • 3D printing technology
• Technological discontinuity may initially have lower performance than incumbent technology. 技术不连续性最初可能比现有技术具有更低的性能。
  • E.g., first automobiles were much slower than horse-drawn carriages. 例如，最早的汽车比马车慢得多。
• Firms may be reluctant to adopt new technology because performance improvement is initially slow and costly, and they may have significant investment in incumbent technology 公司可能不愿意采用新技术，因为性能改进最初是缓慢而昂贵的，而且他们可能在现有技术上有大量投资

跨越S型曲线（第二曲线）

In early stages, effort invested in a new technology may reap lower returns than effort invested in the current technology, and firms are often reluctant to switch.

在早期阶段，投资于新技术的努力可能比投资于现有技术的努力获得更低的回报，公司通常不愿意转换。

However, if the disruptive technology has a steeper s-curve (see Figure a) or an s-curve that increases to a higher performance limit (see Figure b), there may come a time when the returns to effort invested in the new technology are much higher than effort invested in the incumbent technology. New firms entering the industry are likely to choose the disruptive technology, and incumbent firms face the difficult choice of trying to extend the life of their current technology or investing in switching to the new technology. If the disruptive technology has much greater performance potential for a given amount of effort, in the long run it is likely to displace the incumbent technology, but the rate at which it does so can vary significantly.

然而，如果颠覆性技术具有更陡峭的s曲线(见图a)或s曲线增加到更高的性能极限(见图b)，则可能会出现投资于新技术的努力回报远远高于投资于现有技术的努力的时候。进入行业的新企业可能会选择颠覆性技术，而现有企业面临着延长现有技术寿命或投资转换到新技术的艰难选择。如果颠覆性技术在付出一定努力的情况下具有更大的表现潜力，那么从长远来看，它很可能会取代现有技术，但取代的速度可能会有很大差异。

S-Curves in Technology Diffusion

S-curves are also often used to describe the diffusion of a technology. Unlike scurves in technology performance, s-curves in technology diffusion are obtained by plotting the cumulative number of adopters of the technology against time.

s曲线也常用于描述技术的传播。与技术绩效的曲线不同，技术扩散的s曲线是通过绘制技术采用者随时间的累积数量来获得的。

Technology diffusion means the spread of a technology through a population.

技术扩散是指一种技术在人群中传播。

This yields an s-shape curve because adoption is initially slow when an unfamiliar technology is introduced to the market; it accelerates as the technology becomes better understood and utilized by the mass market, and eventually the market is saturated so the rate of new adoptions declines

这就产生了一条s型曲线，因为当一项不熟悉的技术被引入市场时，最初的采用速度很慢;随着技术被大众市场更好地理解和利用，它会加速，最终市场饱和，新采用的速度就会下降

Technology diffusion tends to take far longer than information diffusion.

技术扩散往往比信息扩散需要更长的时间。

Question: If a new technology is a significant improvement over existing solutions, why do some firms shift to it more slowly than others?

Technology may require acquiring complex knowledge or experience.

技术可能需要获得复杂的知识或经验。

• Although some of the knowledge necessary to utilize a new technology might be transmitted through manuals or other documentation, other aspects of knowledge necessary to fully realize the potential of a technology might be built up only through experience. Some of the knowledge about the technology might be tacit and require transmission from person to person through extensive contact. Many potential adopters of a new technology will not adopt it until such knowledge is available to them, despite their awareness of the technology and its potential advantages. 虽然利用一项新技术所需的一些知识可以通过手册或其他文件传播，但充分发挥一项技术潜力所需的知识的其他方面可能只能通过经验积累。有关技术的一些知识可能是隐性的，需要通过广泛的接触在人与人之间传播。尽管许多新技术的潜在采用者意识到这项技术及其潜在的优势，但在获得这些知识之前，他们不会采用这项技术。

Technology may require complementary resources to make it valuable (e.g., cameras not valuable without film).

技术可能需要互补资源才能使其有价值(例如，照相机没有胶卷就没有价值)。

• Many technologies become valuable to a wide range of potential users only after a set of complementary resources are developed for them. 许多技术只有在为它们开发了一套互补资源之后，才会对广泛的潜在用户有价值。

技术进步 -> 价格下降 -> 扩散加快

S-curves of diffusion are in part a function of scurves in technology improvement:

扩散的s曲线部分是技术进步曲线的函数:

• Learning curve leads to price drops, which accelerate diffusion 学习曲线导致价格下降，从而加速扩散

S-Curves as a Prescriptive Tool 规范工具

Managers can use data on investment and performance of their own technologies or data on overall industry investment and technology performance to map s-curve.

管理者可以使用自身技术的投资和绩效数据或整个行业的投资和技术绩效数据来绘制s曲线。

While mapping the technology’s s-curve is useful for gaining a deeper understanding of its rate of improvement or limits, its use as a prescriptive tool is limited.

虽然绘制该技术的s曲线有助于更深入地了解其改进速度或局限性，但它作为规范性工具的用途有限。

• True limits of technology may be unknown 技术的真正极限可能是未知的
• Shape of s-curve can be influenced by changes in the market, component technologies, or complementary technologies. s曲线的形状会受到市场、组件技术或互补技术变化的影响。
• Firms that follow s-curve model too closely could end up switching technologies too soon or too late. 过于严格遵循s曲线模型的公司最终可能会过早或过晚地转换技术。

Limitations of S-Curve Model as a Prescriptive Tool

First, it is rare that the true limits of a technology are known in advance, and there is often considerable disagreement among firms about what a technology’s limits will be.

首先，事先知道一项技术的真正极限是很少见的，而且公司之间对一项技术的极限往往存在相当大的分歧。

Second, the shape of a technology’s s-curve is not set in stone. Unexpected changes in the market, component technologies, or complementary technologies can shorten or extend the life cycle of a technology.

其次，一项技术的s型曲线并不是一成不变的。市场、组件技术或互补技术的意外变化可以缩短或延长技术的生命周期。

Furthermore, firms can influence the shape of the s-curve through their development activities. For example, firms can sometimes stretch the scurve through implementing new development approaches or revamping the architecture design of the technology

此外，企业可以通过其发展活动影响s曲线的形状。例如，公司有时可以通过实施新的开发方法或改进技术的体系结构设计来扩展曲线

Finally, whether switching to a new technology will benefit a firm depends on a number of factors, including

最后，转向一项新技术是否会使公司受益取决于许多因素，包括

(a) the advantages offered by the new technology, 新技术带来的好处，

(b) the new technology’s fit with the firm’s current abilities (and thus the amount of effort that would be required to switch, and the time it would take to develop new competencies), 新技术与公司目前的能力相适应(因此，转换所需的工作量和开发新能力所需的时间);

© the new technology’s fit with the firm’s position in complementary resources (e.g., a firm may lack key complementary resources, or may earn a significant portion of its revenues from selling products compatible with the incumbent technology), 新技术是否符合公司在互补资源中的地位(例如，公司可能缺乏关键的互补资源，或者可能通过销售与现有技术兼容的产品获得很大一部分收入);

(d) the expected rate of diffusion of the new technology. Thus, a firm that follows an s-curve model too closely could end up switching technologies earlier or later than it should. 新技术的预期传播速度。因此，一个过于严格遵循s曲线模型的公司最终可能会比它应该的更早或更晚地转换技术。

Technology Cycles

Technological change tends to be cyclical:

技术变革往往是周期性的:

• Each new s-curve ushers in an initial period of turbulence, followed by rapid improvement, then diminishing returns, and ultimately is displaced by a new technological discontinuity. 每一条新的s曲线都会带来最初的动荡时期，随后是快速改善，然后是收益递减，最终被新的技术不连续所取代。
• Utterback and Abernathy（1993）characterized the technology cycle into two phases: Utterback和Abernathy(1993)将技术周期分为两个阶段:
  • The fluid phase(when there is considerable uncertainty about the technology and its market; firms experiment with different product designs in this phase) 流体阶段(该技术及其市场存在相当大的不确定性);公司在这一阶段尝试不同的产品设计)
  • After a dominant design emerges, the specific phase begins (when firms focus on incremental improvements to the design and manufacturing efficiency). 在主导设计出现后，特定阶段开始(当公司专注于设计和制造效率的增量改进时)。

Anderson and Tushman also found that technological change proceeded cyclically.

安德森和图什曼也发现，技术变革是周期性进行的。

Each discontinuity inauguratesa period of turbulence and uncertainty (era of ferment) until a dominant design is selected, ushering in an era of incremental change.

每一个不连续性都开启了一个动荡和不确定的时期(发酵时代)，直到一个主导设计被选中，迎来一个渐进变化的时代。

Anderson and Tushman found that:

• A dominant design always rose to command the majority of market share unless the next discontinuity arrived too early. 一个占主导地位的设计总是能够占据大部分市场份额，除非下一个不连续性过早到来。

Dominant design, refers to a product design that is adopted by the majority of producers, typically creating a stable architecture on which the industry can focus its efforts.

主导设计，指的是被大多数生产商采用的产品设计，通常是创造一个稳定的架构，让行业可以集中精力。

Anderson and Tushman found that:

• The dominant design was never in the same form as the original discontinuity, but was also not on the leading edge of technology. It bundled the features that would meet the needs of the majority of the market. 主导设计从未采用与原始不连续性相同的形式，但也没有处于技术的前沿。它捆绑了能够满足大多数市场需求的功能。
• During the era of incremental change, firms often cease to invest in learning about alternative designs and instead focus on developing competencies related to the dominant design. 在渐进式变化的时代，公司经常停止投资于学习替代设计，而是专注于开发与主导设计相关的能力。
• This explains in part why incumbent firms may have difficulty recognizing and reacting to a discontinuous technology 这在一定程度上解释了为什么现有公司可能难以识别和应对不连续的技术

Research Brief - Diffusion of Innovation and Adopter Categories

Everett M. Rogers created a typology of adopters:

埃弗雷特·m·罗杰斯(Everett M. Rogers)创建了一种采用者类型:

Innovators are the first 2.5% of individuals to adopt an innovation. They are adventurous, comfortable with a high degree of complexity and uncertainty, and typically have access to substantial financial resources.

创新者是第一批采用创新的2.5%的人。他们勇于冒险，对高度的复杂性和不确定性感到舒适，并且通常可以获得大量的财务资源。

Early Adopters are the next 13.5% to adopt the innovation. They are well integrated into their social system, and have great potential for opinion leadership. Other potential adopters look to early adopters for information and advice, thus early adopters make excellent “missionaries” for new products or processes.

早期采用者是接下来13.5%采用创新的人。他们很好地融入了社会体系，有很大的潜力成为意见领袖。其他潜在的采用者向早期采用者寻求信息和建议，因此早期采用者是新产品或新流程的优秀“传教士”。

Early Majority are the next 34%. They adopt innovations slightly before the average member of a social system. They are typically not opinion leaders, but they interact frequently with their peers.

早期多数是接下来的34%。他们比社会系统的一般成员稍早采用创新。他们通常不是意见领袖，但他们经常与同龄人互动。

Late Majority are the next 34%. They approach innovation with a skeptical air, and may not adopt the innovation until they feel pressure from their peers. They may have scarce resources.

后期多数派是接下来的34%。他们以怀疑的态度对待创新，可能不会采用创新，直到他们感受到来自同伴的压力。他们可能资源匮乏。

Laggards are the last 16%. They base their decisions primarily on past experience and possess almost no opinion leadership. They are highly skeptical of innovations and innovators, and must feel certain that a new innovation will not fail prior to adopting it.

落后者是最后的16%。他们的决定主要基于过去的经验，几乎没有意见领导权。他们对创新和创新者持高度怀疑态度，并且必须确信在采用新的创新之前不会失败。

Technology Trajectories and “Segment Zero”

Technologies often improve faster than customer requirements demand

技术的改进速度往往快于客户的需求

This enables low-end technologies to eventually meet the needs of the mass market.

这使得低端技术最终能够满足大众市场的需求。

Thus, if the low-end market is neglected, it can become a breeding ground for powerful competitors.

因此，如果低端市场被忽视，它可能成为强大竞争对手的温床。

C3 Summary【复习终极省流版】

Different dimensions have been used to distinguish types of innovation. Some of the most widely used dimensions include product versus process innovation, radical versus incremental innovation, competence-enhancing versus competence-destroying innovation, and architectural versus component innovation.

不同的维度被用来区分创新的类型。一些最广泛使用的维度包括产品与过程创新、激进与增量创新、能力增强与能力破坏创新，以及架构与组件创新。

A graph of technology performance over cumulative effort invested often exhibits an s-shape curve. This suggests that performance improvement in a new technology is initially difficult and costly, but, as the fundamental principles of the technology are worked out, it then begins to accelerate as the technology becomes better understood, and finally diminishing returns set in as the technology approaches its inherent limits

技术绩效与累计投入努力的关系曲线通常呈s形曲线。这表明，一项新技术的性能改进最初是困难和昂贵的，但是，随着技术的基本原理被制定出来，随着技术被更好地理解，它开始加速，最终，随着技术接近其固有极限，收益开始递减

A graph of a technology’s market adoption over time also typically exhibits an s-shape curve. Initially the technology may seem uncertain and there may be great costs or risks for potential adopters. Gradually, the technology becomes more certain (and its costs may be driven down), enabling the technology to be adopted by larger market segments. Eventually the technology’s diffusion slows as it reaches market saturation or is displaced by a newer technology.

一项技术的市场采用率随时间变化的图表通常也呈现出s形曲线。最初，这项技术可能看起来不确定，对于潜在的采用者来说，可能会有很大的成本或风险。渐渐地，这项技术变得更加确定(其成本可能会降低)，使这项技术能够被更大的细分市场采用。最终，当技术达到市场饱和或被新技术取代时，技术的扩散速度会减慢。

The rate at which a technology improves over time is often faster than the rate at which customer requirements increase over time. This means technologies that initially met the demands of the mass market may eventually exceed the needs of the market. Furthermore, technologies that initially served only low-end customers (segment zero) may eventually meet the needs of the mass market and capture the market share that originally went to the higher-performing technology.

随着时间的推移，技术改进的速度通常快于客户需求增加的速度。这意味着最初满足大众市场需求的技术最终可能会超过市场的需求。此外，最初只服务于低端客户(零段)的技术可能最终满足大众市场的需求，并夺取最初属于高性能技术的市场份额。

Technological change often follows a cyclical pattern. First, a technological discontinuity causes a period of turbulence and uncertainty, and producers and consumers explore the different possibilities enabled by the new technology. As producers and customers begin to converge on a consensus of the desired technological configuration, a dominant design emerges. The dominant design provides a stable benchmark for the industry, enabling producers to turn their attention to increasing production efficiency and incremental product improvements. This cycle begins again with the next technological discontinuity.

技术变革通常遵循周期性模式。首先，技术的不连续性会导致一段时间的动荡和不确定性，生产者和消费者会探索新技术带来的不同可能性。当生产者和消费者开始就期望的技术配置达成共识时，一个主导设计就出现了。主导设计为行业提供了一个稳定的基准，使生产商能够将注意力转向提高生产效率和增量产品改进。这个循环又从下一个技术开始

The first design based on the initial technological discontinuity rarely becomes the dominant design. There is usually a period in which firms produce a variety of competing designs of the technology before one design emerges as dominant.

基于初始技术不连续的第一个设计很少成为主导设计。通常有一段时间，在一种设计成为主导之前，公司会生产出各种竞争的技术设计。

The dominant design rarely embodies the most advanced technological features available at the time of its emergence. It is instead the bundle of features that best meets the requirements of the majority of producers and customers.

占主导地位的设计很少体现其出现时最先进的技术特征。相反，它是最能满足大多数生产商和客户需求的功能包。

接下来的这块内容，我们将聚焦于dominate design

Why Dominant Designs are Selected?

1)Increasing returns to adoption 提高采用回报

2)Network externalities 网络外部性：指一个产品或服务的价值随着使用该产品或服务的人数增加而增加的现象。

3)Government regulation 政府监管：控制企业运营方式的法律，或者指所有这些法律的综合。

4)Path dependence 路径依赖：指一个系统或过程的发展受历史路径或事件序列的影响，过去的选择可能会对未来的轨迹产生持久的影响。

1)Increasing returns to adoption

Many industries exhibit increasing returns to adoption: the more a technology is adopted, the more valuable it becomes.

许多行业都表现出越来越多的采用回报:一项技术被采用得越多，它就越有价值。

Primary sources of increasing returns:

增加收益的主要来源:

• Learning effects 学习效应
• Network externalities. 网络外部性：指一个产品或服务的价值随着使用该产品或服务的人数增加而增加的现象。

Result in a self-reinforcing process that continues to increase a technology’s dominance even if it is inferior to competing technologies.

导致一个自我强化的过程，继续增加一项技术的主导地位，即使它不如竞争对手的技术。

Learning Effects

The more a technology is adopted, the more it is developed and the more effective and efficient it becomes.

一项技术被采用得越多，它就越发达，越有效和高效。

• Revenue generation for reinvestment on further developing in technology 为进一步发展技术的再投资创造收入
• Experience and knowledge accumulation 经验和知识的积累

Learning effects have been demonstrated in a wide variety of industries.

学习效应在许多行业都得到了证明。

Learning Curves

One example of learning effects is manifest in the impact of cumulative production on cost and productivity—otherwise known as the learning curve

学习效应的一个例子是累积产量对成本和生产率的影响，也就是众所周知的学习曲线

就是随着研究和发展，cumulative production越多，价格下降，产品表现上升

The standard form of the learning curve is formulated as

• 

  • where y is the number of direct labor hours required to produce the xth unit, a is the number of direct labor hours required to produce the first unit, x is the cumulative number of units produced, and b is the learning rate. 其中，y为生产第X个单位所需的直接劳动小时数，a为生产第一个单位所需的直接劳动小时数，x为累计生产单位数，b为学习率。

• This pattern has been found to be consistent with production data on a wide range of products and services, including the production of automobiles, ships, semiconductors, pharmaceuticals, and even heart surgery techniques. 人们发现，这种模式与许多产品和服务的生产数据是一致的，包括汽车、船舶、半导体、药品，甚至心脏手术技术的生产。

• Learning curves have also been identified by using a variety of performance measures, including productivity, total costs per unit, accidents per unit, and waste per unit 学习曲线还通过使用各种性能度量来确定，包括生产率、单位总成本、单位事故和单位浪费

Learning Rate

Organizations learn at very different rates.

不同组织的学习速度各不相同。

The learning rate is influenced by factors such as:

学习率受以下因素的影响:

• The nature of the task (e.g. capital-intensive or labor-intensive, complexity) 任务的性质(如资本密集型还是劳动密集型、复杂性)
• Firm strategy (e.g. intentional innovation, process-improvement projects) 公司战略(如有意创新、过程改进项目)
• Prior experience 先前经验：指一个人在某个领域或特定活动中已经具有的经历和知识。
• Absorptive capacity 吸收能力

Prior Learning and Absorptive Capacity

A firm’s prior experience influences its ability to recognize and utilize new information.

公司以前的经验会影响其识别和利用新信息的能力。

Absorptive Capacity refers to the phenomenon whereby as individuals or firms learn, they also increase their future ability to learn. The ability of an organization to recognize, assimilate, and utilize new knowledge.

吸收能力是指个人或企业在学习的同时，也在提高未来的学习能力。组织识别、吸收和利用新知识的能力。

Absorptive capacity also has effects at the industry level.

吸收能力在行业层面也有影响。

• As the number of firms learning about a technology increases and/or the number of firms creating complementary technologies increases, the more effective and efficient the original technology will become.

2)Network Externalities

Network Externalities (network effects, positive consumption externalities)– the value of a good to a user increases with the number of other users of the same or similar good. Also termed positive consumption externalities, this is when the value of a good to a user increases with the number of other users of the same or similar good.

网络外部性(网络效应，正消费外部性)——商品对用户的价值随着相同或类似商品的其他用户数量的增加而增加。也被称为正消费外部性，这是当一种商品对用户的价值随着相同或类似商品的其他用户数量的增加而增加时。

• Direct network externalities: the utility of a product to each user in a network depends on the number of users. 直接网络外部性:产品对网络中每个用户的效用取决于用户的数量。
• Indirect network externalities: a positive link between the utility to a customer and the number of other users of the product by expanding the range of complementary products 间接网络外部性:通过扩大互补产品的范围，对客户的效用与产品的其他用户数量之间的积极联系

The classic examples of markets demonstrating network externality effects are those involving physical networks, such as railroads or telecommunications. Railroads are more valuable as the size of the railroad network (and therefore the number of available destinations) increases. Similarly, a telephone is not much use if only a few people can be called with it—the amount of utility the phone provides is directly related to the size of the network.

市场表现出网络外部性效应的经典例子是那些涉及物理网络的市场，如铁路或电信。随着铁路网络的规模(以及可用目的地的数量)的增加，铁路变得更有价值。同样，如果一部电话只能与少数人通话，它也没有多大用处——电话的效用与网络的规模直接相关。

Network externalities are common in industries that are physically networked.

网络外部性在物理网络化的行业中很常见。

For example, a user’s benefit from using a good may increase with the number of users of the same good when compatibility is important.

例如，当兼容性很重要时，用户从使用一种商品中获得的好处可能会随着同一商品的用户数量的增加而增加。

The number of users of a particular technology is often referred to as its installed base.

一项特定技术的用户数量通常被称为它的“安装基数”

For instance, the installed base of a particular video game console refers to the number of those consoles that are installed in homes worldwide.

例如，特定视频游戏机的安装基数指的是全球家庭中安装的这些游戏机的数量。

Installed Base and Complementary Goods

安装基数及配套产品

A user may choose a computer platform based on the number of other users of that platform, rather than on the technological benefits of a particular platform, because it increases the ease of exchanging files.

用户可以根据该平台的其他用户数量来选择计算机平台，而不是基于特定平台的技术优势，因为它增加了交换文件的便利性。

For example, many people choose a computer that uses the Windows operating system and an Intel microprocessor because the “Wintel” (Windows and Intel) platform has the largest installed base, thus maximizing the number of people with which the user’s files will be compatible. Furthermore, the user’s training in a particular platform becomes more valuable as the size of the installed base of the platform increases. If the user must invest considerable effort in learning to use a computer platform, the user will probably choose to invest this effort in learning the format he or she believes will be most widely used.

例如，许多人选择使用Windows操作系统和英特尔微处理器的计算机，因为“Wintel”(Windows和英特尔)平台具有最大的安装基础，从而最大限度地增加了用户文件兼容的人数。此外，用户在特定平台上的培训随着平台安装基数的增加而变得更有价值。如果用户必须付出相当大的努力来学习使用计算机平台，那么用户可能会选择将这种努力投入到学习他或她认为有用的格式上

Network externalities also arise when complementary goods are important.

当互补性商品很重要时，网络外部性也会出现。

Products that have a large installed base are likely to attract more developers of complementary goods.

拥有庞大安装基础的产品可能会吸引更多配套产品的开发商。

This is demonstrated in the Theory in Action about Microsoft: Once the Windows operating system had the largest installed base, most producers of complementary software applications chose to design their products to be optimized to work with Windows. Since the availability of complementary goods will influence users’ choice among competing platforms, the availability of complementary goods influences the size of the installed base

这在《关于微软的行动理论》中得到了证明:一旦Windows操作系统拥有最大的安装基础，大多数互补软件应用程序的生产商选择将他们的产品设计为与Windows一起工作的最佳化。由于互补性商品的可获得性会影响用户对竞争平台的选择，因此互补性商品的可获得性会影响安装基数的大小

这将会产生一个self-reinforcing cycle【自我强化循环：指一个过程或现象，其中某个因素的增强会导致其他因素的增强，这些因素又会进一步增强第一个因素，形成一个循环。】

就是installed base和complementary goods是互相促进的

3)Government Regulation

In some industries, the consumer welfare benefits of having compatibility among technologies have prompted government regulation, and thus a legally induced adherence to a dominant design. This has often been the case for the utilities, telecommunications, and television industries, to name a few.

在某些行业，技术之间的兼容性带来的消费者福利利益促使政府进行监管，从而在法律上诱导对主导设计的遵守。举例来说，公用事业、电信和电视行业往往就是这种情况。

Government regulation in addition to the market forces imposes a single standard, because standardization has economic efficiency and brings important benefits for consumers

除了市场力量之外，政府监管还强加了单一标准，因为标准化具有经济效率，并为消费者带来重要利益

In some industries, This has often been the case for the utilities, telecommunications and television industries.

在某些行业，公用事业、电信和电视行业经常是这种情况。

For some industries, there is a high likelihood that standardization policies may lock some technologies out of a specific market. But unless all other competitors are locked out, the most important factors are on the market side.

对于某些行业，标准化政策很可能会将某些技术锁定在特定市场之外。但除非所有其他竞争对手都被排除在外，否则最重要的因素还是在市场方面。

4)Path Dependency

Increasing returns to adoption also imply that technology trajectories are characterized by path dependency

采用回报的增加也意味着技术轨迹具有路径依赖的特征

Path dependency – when end results depend greatly on the events that took place leading up to the outcome. It is often impossible to reproduce the results that occur in such a situation.

路径依赖——当最终结果很大程度上依赖于导致结果的事件时。在这种情况下发生的结果通常是不可能重现的。

• Early entrants and their technology may become so entrenched that subsequent, superior technologies, may be unable to gain a foothold in the market. 早期进入者和他们的技术可能变得如此根深蒂固，以至于后来的先进技术可能无法在市场上站稳脚跟。
• Sponsorship by a large powerful firm can help a technology gain a controlling share of the market, locking out alternative and potentially superior technologies. 由强大的大公司赞助可以帮助一项技术获得市场的控制份额，将可替代的和潜在的更先进的技术拒之门外。

Technological advantage is not the determinant factor

技术优势不是决定性因素

The Result: Winner-Take-All Markets

All these forces can encourage the market toward natural monopolies.

所有这些力量都会促使市场走向自然垄断。

The most superior products do not necessarily win. When all of the above forces are at work, the result can be a natural monopoly (though some alternatives may survive in niche markets) and winner-take-all markets.

最优秀的产品不一定会胜出。当上述所有力量都在起作用时，结果可能是自然垄断(尽管一些替代品可能在利基市场中生存)和赢者通吃的市场。

Natural monopolies: the majority of the market is dominated by a single (or few) design(s).

自然垄断:多数市场由单一(或少数)设计主导。

• The winning firm enjoys high returns and is well positioned to affect the development trajectory of the technology thereby further enhancing its dominant position in the industry. 胜出的企业将获得高回报，并有能力影响该技术的发展轨迹，从而进一步增强其在行业中的主导地位。
• Losing firms, not only have to play catch up after they adopt the dominant design they also lose the capital, learning and brand equity invested in their original technology. 失败的公司，不仅要在采用主导设计后迎头赶上，还会失去投资于原始技术的资本、知识和品牌资产。

All these forces can encourage the market toward natural monopolies.

所有这些力量都会促使市场走向自然垄断。

While some alternative platforms may survive by focusing on niche markets, the majority of the market may be dominated by a single (or few) design(s). A firm that is able to lock in its technology as the dominant design of a market usually earns huge rewards and may dominate the product category through several product generations. When a firm’s technology is chosen as a dominant design, not only does the firm have the potential to earn near-monopoly rents in the short run, but the firm also is in a good position to shape the evolution of the industry, greatly influencing what future generations of products will look like

虽然一些替代平台可能通过专注于利基市场而生存下来，但大多数市场可能被单一(或少数)设计所主导。一家能够将其技术锁定为市场主导设计的公司通常会获得巨额回报，并可能通过几代产品在产品类别中占据主导地位。当一家公司的技术被选为主导设计时，该公司不仅有可能在短期内获得近乎垄断的租金，而且还处于塑造行业演变的有利地位，极大地影响未来几代产品的外观

However, if the firm supports a technology that is not chosen as the dominant design, it may be forced to adopt the dominant technology, effectively forfeiting the capital, learning, and brand equity invested in its original technology. Even worse, a firm may find itself locked out of the market if it is unable to adopt the dominant technology.

然而，如果企业支持的技术没有被选为主导设计，它可能会被迫采用主导技术，从而有效地丧失投资于其原始技术的资本、学习和品牌资产。更糟糕的是，如果一家公司不能采用主导技术，它可能会发现自己被市场拒之门外。

Standards battles → Big winners and big losers

标准之争→大赢家和大输家

A dominant design can have far-reaching influence; Dominant designs affect knowledge accumulation after their adoption primarily because firms have a tendency to build on their existing knowledge base rather than build new ones. This means that a dominant design will influence the technological discontinuity that will replace it. it shapes future technological inquiry in the area.

主导设计可以产生深远的影响;主导设计在采用后会影响知识积累，主要是因为企业倾向于建立在现有的知识基础上，而不是建立新的知识基础。这意味着主导设计将影响取代它的技术不连续性。它塑造了该地区未来的技术探索。

Winner-take-all markets can have very different competitive dynamics than other markets.

赢者通吃的市场与其他市场有着非常不同的竞争动态。

Such markets require different firm strategies for success than other markets.

这样的市场需要不同于其他市场的成功战略。

Are winner-take-all markets good for consumers?

赢者通吃的市场对消费者有利吗?

• This is a complex question, made more complicated by traditional economics emphasis on the advantages of competitive markets. What makes this a complex question is the issue of increasing returns (of course the antitrust suits brought against Microsoft are a good example to use here). 这是一个复杂的问题，由于传统经济学强调竞争市场的优势，这个问题变得更加复杂。使这个问题变得复杂的是回报增加的问题(当然，针对微软的反垄断诉讼就是一个很好的例子)。

Multiple Dimensions of Value

The value a new technology offers a customer is a composite of many different things.

一项新技术为客户提供的价值是许多不同事物的综合。

We first consider the value of the stand-alone technology, and then show how the stand-alone value of the technology combines with the value created by the size of the installed base and availability of complementary goods.

我们首先考虑独立技术的价值，然后展示该技术的独立价值如何与已安装基础的规模和互补商品的可用性所创造的价值相结合。

In industries characterized by increasing returns, this combination will influence which technology design rises to dominance.

在以收益递增为特征的行业中，这种组合将影响哪一种技术设计将占据主导地位。

• Increasing returns - When the rate of return(not just gross returns) from a product or process increases with the size of its installed base. 增加回报-当产品或过程的回报率(不仅仅是总回报)随着其安装基础的规模而增加时。

The company that wins usually is able to effectively manage the multiple dimensions that comprise total customer value.

获胜的公司通常能够有效地管理构成总客户价值的多个维度。

• 1）Technology’s Stand-Alone Value 科技的独立价值
• 2）Network Externality Value 网络外部性价值
• Which is created by the size of its installed base and the availability of complementary goods. 这是由其安装基础的规模和补充商品的可用性创造的。

In industries characterized by increasing returns, the combination of standalone value and network externality value will influence which technology design rises to dominance.

在收益递增的行业中，独立价值与网络外部性价值的结合将影响哪一种技术设计上升到主导地位。

1）A Technology’s Stand-alone Value

The value a new technology offers to customers can be driven by many different things,

一项新技术为客户提供的价值可以由许多不同的因素驱动，

• Functions
• Aesthetic qualities 美学的特征
• Ease of use 易用性：以使用者为中心的设计概念，让产品的设计能够符合使用者的习惯与需求。

Buyer Utility Map

Chan Kim and Renee Mauborgne developed the “Buyer Utility Map” to help managers determine what aspects of a new technology will be valued by potential customers (e.g. the functions it enables the customer to perform, its aesthetic qualities, its ease of use, etc.). They recommend considering six utility levers and the six stages of a buyers experience cycle (purchase, delivery, use, supplements, maintenance, and disposal) in order to fully understand a new technologies standalone value to a customer. Of course, each benefit has to be considered in light of its cost.

Chan Kim和Renee Mauborgne开发了“买家效用图”(Buyer Utility Map)，以帮助管理者确定一项新技术的哪些方面会受到潜在客户的重视(例如，它使客户能够执行的功能、它的美学品质、它的易用性等)。他们建议考虑六个效用杠杆和买家体验周期的六个阶段(购买、交付、使用、补充、维护和处置)，以便充分了解新技术对客户的独立价值。当然，每一种好处都必须考虑到它的成本。

Six Stages

Purchase

Delivery 交付

Use

Supplements 补充

Maintenance 维护

Disposal 清除

Six Utility Levers 六种工具杠杆

Customer Productivity 用户生产力

Simplicity 简单

Convenience 方便

Risk 风险

Fun and Image 趣味与形象

Environmental Friendliness 环保性：指产品、行为或政策对环境的友好程度，即对环境的保护和可持续发展的关注程度。

Buyer Utility Map - Example

就是类似于这样的表格式的东西，去分析消费者

2）Network Externality Value

In industries characterized by network externalities, the value of a technological innovation to users will be a function not only of its standalone benefits and cost, but also of the value created by the size of its installed base and the availability of complementary goods

在以网络外部性为特征的工业中，技术革新对用户的价值不仅取决于其单独的效益和成本，而且还取决于其安装基础的规模和补充商品的可得性所创造的价值

Network externality value is a function of the size of the installed base and the availability of complementary goods.

网络外部性价值是已安装基础规模和补充商品可用性的函数。

• a)The size of the technology’s installed base 该技术安装基础的大小
• b)The availability of complementary goods 补充商品的可得性

E.g., The value of the Windows operating system, for example is due to the ability of the system to make it easy for consumers to use the computer (standalone value) plus two sources of network externality value: 1) its large installed base which translates into a large number of computers with which the user can easily interact, and 2) the availability of compatible software developed for Windows as its installed base increased.

例如，Windows操作系统的价值是由于该系统使消费者易于使用计算机的能力(独立价值)加上两个网络外部性价值来源:1)其庞大的安装基础转化为大量的计算机，用户可以轻松地与之交互;2)随着安装基础的增加，为Windows开发的兼容软件的可用性。

A new technology that has significantly more standalone functionality than the incumbent technology may offer less overall value because it has a smaller installed base or poor availability of complementary goods.

与现有技术相比，具有更多独立功能的新技术可能会提供更少的整体价值，因为它的安装基础较小，或者补充产品的可用性较差。

• E.g., NeXT Computers were extremely advanced technologically, but could not compete with the installed base value and complementary good value of Windows-based personal computers. 例如，NeXT电脑在技术上非常先进，但无法与基于windows的个人电脑的安装基础价值和互补的良好价值竞争。
• A similar battle was playing out in 2012 between smartphone operating systems, though in this case there were two contenders who were more evenly matched: Apple’s iOS and Google’s Android. 2012年，智能手机操作系统之间也曾上演过类似的较量，不过当时有两个竞争对手势均力敌:苹果的iOS和谷歌的Android。

重新整体分析Value

In industries characterized by network externalities, the value of a technological innovation to users will be a function not only of its standalone benefits and cost, but also of the value created by the size of its installed base and the availability of complementary goods (see Figure 4.4(a)).

在以网络外部性为特征的工业中，技术创新对用户的价值不仅是其单独的效益和成本的函数，而且是其安装基础的规模和补充商品的可得性所创造的价值的函数(见图4.4(a))

As shown in Figure4.4(b) , it is not enough for a new technology’s stand-alone utility to exceed that of the incumbent standard. The new technology must be able to offer greater overall value. For the new technology to compete on its stand-alone utility alone, that utility must be so great that it eclipses the combined value of an existing technology’s stand-alone utility, its installed base, and its complementary goods

如图4.4(b)所示，新技术的独立实用程序仅仅超过现有标准是不够的。新技术必须能够提供更大的整体价值。一项新技术要想在单独效用上竞争，这种效用必须大到超过现有技术单独效用、安装基础和配套产品的综合价值

In some cases, the new technology may be made compatible with the existing technology’s installed base and complementary goods as in Figure 4.4©.

在某些情况下，新技术可以与现有技术的已安装基础和补充货物相兼容，如图4.4©所示。

When users are comparing the value of a new technology to an existing technology, they are weighing a combination of objective information (e.g., actual technological benefits, actual information on installed base or complementary goods), subjective information (e.g., perceived technological benefits, perceived installed base or complementary goods), and expectations for the future (e.g., anticipated technological benefits, anticipated installed base and complementary goods). Thus, each of the primary value components described above also has corresponding perceived or anticipated value components (see Figure 4.5).

当用户将一项新技术的价值与现有技术进行比较时，他们是在权衡客观信息(例如，实际技术效益、关于已安装基础或互补商品的实际信息)、主观信息(例如，感知技术效益、感知已安装基础或互补商品)和对未来的期望(例如，预期技术效益、预期已安装基础和互补商品)的组合。因此，上面描述的每个主要价值成分也有相应的感知或预期价值成分(见图4.5)。

Firms can take advantage of the fact that users rely on both objective and subjective information in assessing the combined value offered by a new technology.

企业可以利用这样一个事实，即用户在评估新技术提供的综合价值时既依赖客观信息，也依赖主观信息。

For example, even a technology with a small installed base can achieve a relatively large mind share through heavy advertising by its backers. Producers can also shape users’ expectations of the future installed base and availability of complements through announcements of preorders, licensing agreements, and distribution arrangements.

例如，即使是安装基础较小的技术也可以通过其支持者的大量广告获得相对较大的思想份额。生产商还可以通过宣布预购、许可协议和分销安排来影响用户对未来安装基础和补充产品可用性的预期。

Competing for Design Dominance in Markets with Network Externalities

We can graph the value a technology offers in both standalone value and network externality value:

我们可以画出一项技术在独立价值和网络外部性价值方面的价值:

Two Competing Designs

We can compare the graphs of two competing technologies, and identify cumulative market share levels (installed base) that determine which technology yields more value.

我们可以比较两种竞争技术的图表，并确定决定哪种技术产生更多价值的累积市场份额水平(安装基础)。

Theory in Action（一个问题） - Are Winner-Take-All Markets Good for Consumers?

Traditionally, economics has emphasized the consumer welfare benefits of competitive markets; however, increasing returns make this a complicated issue. This is exemplified by the antitrust suits brought against Microsoft. While some analysts argued that Microsoft had clearly engaged in anticompetitive behavior and had damaged consumers in its quest to dominate the personal computer operating system market, others argued that Microsoft had behaved appropriately, and that its overwhelming share of the personal computer operating system market was good for consumers since it created greater compatibility among computers and more software applications.

传统上，经济学强调竞争市场的消费者福利;然而，不断增加的回报使这成为一个复杂的问题。针对微软的反垄断诉讼就是例证。虽然一些分析人士认为，微软在寻求主宰个人电脑操作系统市场的过程中明显从事了反竞争行为，损害了消费者的利益，但也有人认为，微软的行为是恰当的，它在个人电脑操作系统市场的压倒性份额对消费者是有利的，因为它在电脑和更多软件应用之间创造了更大的兼容性。

So how does a regulatory body decide when a firm has become too dominant? One way to think about this is to compare the value customers reap from network externalities at different levels of market share with the corresponding monopoly costs.

那么，当一家公司变得过于强势时，监管机构该如何判断呢?考虑这个问题的一种方法是，将不同市场份额水平下的客户从网络外部性中获得的价值与相应的垄断成本进行比较。

Network externality returns refers to the value customers reap as a larger portion of the market adopts the same good (e.g., there is likely to be greater availability of complementary goods, more compatibility among users, and more revenues can be channeled into further developing the technology).

网络外部性回报指的是客户获得的价值，因为更大一部分市场采用了相同的商品(例如，可能有更多的补充商品可用性，用户之间的兼容性更好，更多的收入可以用于进一步开发技术)

Monopoly costs refer to the costs users bear as a larger portion of the market adopts the same good (e.g., a monopolist may charge higher prices, there may be less product variety, and innovation in alternative technologies may be stifled).

垄断成本是指市场上更大一部分用户采用同一种商品所承担的成本(例如，垄断者可能会收取更高的价格，产品种类可能会减少，替代技术的创新可能会受到抑制)。

Network externality returns to market share often exhibit the s-shape described in the previous section. Monopoly costs to market share, however, are often considered to be exponentially increasing. Plotting them on the same graph (as in Figure 4.9) reveals how network externality benefits and monopoly costs trade off against each other.

网络外部性对市场份额的回报通常呈现前一节描述的s形。然而，市场份额的垄断成本通常被认为呈指数增长。将它们绘制在同一张图上(如图4.9)，揭示了网络外部性收益和垄断成本是如何相互权衡的。

Network externality benefits to customers rise with cumulative market share

客户的网络外部性效益随着市场份额的累积而上升

Potential for monopoly costs to customers (e.g., price gouging, restricted product variety, etc.) also rise with cumulative market share.

对顾客造成垄断成本的可能性(如哄骗价格、限制产品种类等)也随着市场份额的累积而上升。

Curve shapes are different; Network externality benefits likely to grow logistically, while potential monopoly costs likely to grow exponentially.

曲线形状不同;网络外部性效益可能以物流方式增长，而潜在的垄断成本可能以指数方式增长。

Where monopoly costs exceed network externality benefits, intervention may be warranted. Optimal market share is at point where lines cross

当垄断成本超过网络外部性收益时，干预可能是必要的。最佳的市场份额是在两条线的交叉点

Strategies in Standards Battles【不用背，帮助理解】

Types of Standards Battles

New technology compatible with the current technology—Evolution strategy

与当前技术兼容的新技术——演进策略

• Offering superior performance with minimal consumer switching or adoption costs. 以最小的消费者转换或采用成本提供卓越的性能。

New technology incompatible with the old—Revolution strategy

新技术与旧的不相容——革命战略

• offering such compelling performance that consumers are willing to incur significant switching or adoption costs 提供如此引人注目的性能，以至于消费者愿意承担重大的转换或采用成本

Key strategies

Preemptions 优先购买

• First to market 首创者：指在某个市场或行业中率先推出某种产品或服务的企业或个人。
• Penetration pricing 渗透定价
• Free samples 免费样品：通常是一小部分包装好的商品，免费分发给潜在客户，作为产品的介绍。

Expectation Management 期望管理

• Vaporware (Pre-advertising) 雾件(提前广告)
• Grand claims about popularity 关于受欢迎程度的宏大主张

Open Policy Plus Technology Protection (e.g. Microsoft’s tolerance of pirated software )

开放政策加技术保护(例如微软对盗版软件的容忍)

Coalitions/Alliance/Allies 联盟/盟友

Once You’ve Won

Staying on Your Guard: keep looking out for the next generation of technology

保持警惕:继续关注下一代技术

Offer Customers a Migration Path: anticipate the next generation to make it hard for rivals to execute a revolution strategy.

为客户提供迁移路径:预测下一代，使竞争对手难以执行革命性战略。

Commoditize Complementary Products: keep your network alive and healthy.

商品化补充产品:保持你的网络活跃和健康

Competing Against Your Own Installed Base: upgrade your technology even without an external threat

与自己的安装基地竞争:在没有外部威胁的情况下升级你的技术

Protecting Your Position: offer ongoing attractive terms to important complementors

保护你的地位:为重要的互补者提供持续的有吸引力的条款

Leveraging Your Installed Base: acquisitions of companies selling neighboring products, or geographic expansion

利用你的安装基础:收购销售邻近产品的公司，或进行地域扩张

Staying a Leader: use an “openness” approach of ceding current control over the technology while develop proprietary extensions; allow complementors, and even rivals, to participate in developing standards, but under your terms

保持领先地位:采用“开放”的方式，放弃对技术的当前控制，同时开发专有扩展;允许互补者，甚至是竞争对手参与标准的制定，但要在你的条件下

Rear-Guard Actions

Adapters and Interconnection: enhance network externality value by plugging into a far larger network.

适配器和互连:通过插入更大的网络来增强网络外部性价值。

Avoid Survival Pricing: survival pricing—cutting your price after the tide has moved against you—should be distinguished from penetration pricing.

避免生存定价:生存定价——在潮流对你不利时降价——应该与渗透定价区分开来。

Legal Approaches: antitrust attacks. You may be able to protect a niche in the market. And you can always position yourself to make a run at leadership in the next generation of technology

法律途径:反垄断攻击。你也许能在市场上保住一席之地。你总是可以让自己成为下一代技术的领导者

Lessons from Practice

Incompatibilities can arise almost by accident, yet persist for many years.

不兼容性几乎可能是偶然出现的，但却会持续多年。

Seceding from the standard-setting process can leave you in a weak market position in the future.

退出标准制定过程会让你在未来处于弱势的市场地位。

A large buyer (e.g. the government) can have more influence than suppliers in tipping the balance.

大买家(如政府)在打破平衡方面可能比供应商更有影响力。

Technologies can seek well-suited niches if the forces towards standardization are not overwhelming.

如果标准化的力量不是压倒性的，技术可以寻找合适的利基市场。

Ongoing innovation (e.g. polyphase AC)can lead to victory in a standards war.

持续的创新(例如多相交流)可以在标准战争中取得胜利。

A first-mover advantage can he overcome by a superior technology if the performance advantage is sufficient and users are not overly entrenched.

如果性能上的优势足够大，而且用户没有过于根深蒂固，那么先发优势可以被更先进的技术所克服。

Adapters can be the salvation of the losing technology and can help to ultimately defuse a standards war.

适配器可以成为失败技术的救星，并有助于最终平息一场标准之战。

Adoption of a new technology can be painfully slow if the price/performance ratio is unattractive and if it requires adoption by a number of different players.

如果一项新技术的性价比没有吸引力，并且需要许多不同的参与者采用，那么采用这项新技术可能会非常缓慢。

Victory in a standards war often requires building an alliance.

一场标准战争的胜利往往需要建立一个联盟。

A dominant position in one generation of technology does not necessarily translate into dominance in the next generation of technology

在一代技术中占据主导地位并不一定意味着在下一代技术中占据主导地位

C4 Summary【复习省流版】

Many technologies demonstrate increasing returns to adoption, meaning that the more they are adopted, the more valuable they become.

许多技术显示出越来越多的采用回报，这意味着它们被采用得越多，就越有价值。

One primary source of increasing returns is learning-curve effects. The more a technology is produced and used, the better understood and developed it becomes, leading to improved performance and reduced costs.

收益增加的一个主要来源是学习曲线效应。一项技术生产和使用得越多，对它的理解和开发就越好，从而提高了性能，降低了成本。

Another key factor creating increasing returns is network externality effects. Network externality effects arise when the value of a good to a user increases with the size of the installed base. This can be due to a number of reasons, such as need for compatibility or the availability of complementary goods.

另一个增加收益的关键因素是网络外部性效应。当一种商品对用户的价值随着安装基数的增加而增加时，就会产生网络外部性效应。这可能是由于许多原因，例如需要兼容性或可获得补充商品。

In some industries, the consumer welfare benefits of having a single standard have prompted government regulation, such as the European Union’s mandate to use the GSM cellular phone standard.

在某些行业，单一标准对消费者福利的好处促使政府进行监管，例如欧盟授权使用GSM移动电话标准。

Increasing returns can lead to winner-take-all markets where one or a few companies capture nearly all the market share.

不断增加的回报可能导致赢家通吃的市场，在这种市场中，一家或几家公司几乎占据了所有的市场份额。

The value of a technology to buyers is multidimensional. The standalone value of a technology can include many factors (productivity, simplicity, etc.) and the technology’s cost. In increasing returns industries, the value will also be significantly affected by the technology’s installed base and availability of complementary goods.

一项技术对买家的价值是多维的。一项技术的独立价值可以包括许多因素(生产力、简单性等)和技术的成本。在收益增加的行业中，价值也将受到技术的安装基础和补充商品的可用性的显著影响。

Customers weigh a combination of objective and subjective information. Thus, a customer’s perceptions and expectations of a technology can be as important as (or more important than) the actual value offered by the technology.

顾客会综合考虑客观和主观的信息。因此，客户对技术的感知和期望可能与技术提供的实际价值一样重要(甚至更重要)。

Firms can try to manage customers’ perceptions and expectations through advertising and public announcements of preorders, distribution agreements, and so on.

公司可以尝试通过广告和公开宣布预订、分销协议等方式来管理客户的看法和期望。

The combination of network externality returns to market share and technological utility will influence at what level of market share one technology will dominate another. For some industries, the full network externality benefits are attained at a minority market share level; in these industries, multiple designs are likely to coexist.

网络外部性对市场份额的回报和技术效用的组合将影响一种技术在何种市场份额水平上支配另一种技术。对于某些行业，在少数市场份额水平上可以获得充分的网络外部性效益;在这些行业中，多种设计可能共存。

我们先前说过，某些行业是Increasing returns to adoption的，一项技术被采用的越早，就可能越有优势，但是太早的技术也有可能被市场淘汰，所以说进入市场的的时机十分重要，接下来我们就讨论这个问题

基于进入市场的时机的分类：first mover, early follower or late entrant

First movers are the first entrants to sell in a new product or service category (“pioneers”).

先行者是指销售新产品或服务类别的第一批进入者(“先行者”)。

Early followers are early to market but not the first.

早期的追随者是最早进入市场的，但不是第一个。

Late entrants do not enter the market until the product begins to penetrate the mass market or later.

在产品开始进入大众市场或之后，后进者才进入市场。

First-Mover Advantages

Being a first mover may confer the advantages of brand loyalty and technological leadership, preemption of scarce assets, and exploitation of buyer switching costs. Furthermore, in industries characterized by increasing returns, early entrants may accrue learning and network externality advantages that are self-reinforcing over time.

成为先行者可能会带来品牌忠诚度和技术领先优势，抢占稀缺资产，并利用买家转换成本。此外，在以收益增加为特征的行业中，早期进入者可能会积累学习和网络外部性优势，这些优势会随着时间的推移而自我强化。

Brand loyalty and technological leadership

品牌忠诚度和技术领先地位

• may earn a long-lasting reputation as a leader in that technology domain. 作为该技术领域的领导者可能会赢得持久的声誉。
• yield sustained monopoly rents. Even if the technology characteristics are imitable, the first mover has an opportunity to build brand loyalty before the entry of other competitors. 产生持续的垄断租金。即使技术特征是可模仿的，先行者也有机会在其他竞争者进入之前建立品牌忠诚度。
• The additional returns (either higher revenues or lower costs) a firm can make from being a monopolist, such as the ability to set high prices, or the ability to lower costs through greater bargaining power over suppliers. 公司作为垄断者所能获得的额外回报(更高的收入或更低的成本)，如设定高价的能力，或通过对供应商更大的议价能力来降低成本的能力。

Preemption of Scarce Assets

稀缺资产的优先购买权

• Firms that enter the market early can preemptively capture scarce resources such as key locations, government permits, access to distribution channels, and relationships with suppliers. 较早进入市场的公司可以先发制人地获得稀缺资源，如关键地点、政府许可、分销渠道以及与供应商的关系。

Exploiting Buyer Switching Costs

利用买方转换成本

• Once buyers have adopted a good, they often face costs to switch to another good. 一旦买家采用了一种商品，他们通常会面临转向另一种商品的成本。

Reaping Increasing Returns Advantages

收获收益递增优势

• In an industry with pressures encouraging adoption of a dominant design, the timing of a firm’s investment in new technology development may be particularly critical to its likelihood of success. 在一个有压力鼓励采用主导设计的行业中，企业投资新技术开发的时机可能对其成功的可能性尤为关键。

First-Mover Disadvantages

Despite the great attention that first-mover advantages receive, there are also arguments for not entering a market too early.

尽管先发优势受到了极大的关注，但也有人认为不宜过早进入市场。

incumbent inertia

现任惯性

• The tendency for incumbents to be slow to respond to changes in the industry environment due to their large size, established routines, or prior strategic commitments to existing suppliers and customers. 现有企业由于规模大、惯例或对现有供应商和客户的战略承诺而对行业环境变化反应迟缓的趋势。

Despite the great attention that first-mover advantages receive, there are also arguments for not entering a market too early.

尽管先发优势受到了极大的关注，但也有人认为不宜过早进入市场。

• Research and Development Expenses 研究开发费用
  • Developing a new technology often entails significant research and development expenses, and the first to develop and introduce a technology typically bears the brunt of this expense. Since the new product development failure rate can be as high as 95 percent, being the first to develop and introduce an unproven new technology is expensive and risky. 开发一项新技术通常需要大量的研究和开发费用，而第一个开发和引入一项技术的人通常会首当其冲地承担这笔费用。由于新产品开发的失败率可能高达95%，因此成为第一个开发和引入未经验证的新技术的人是昂贵且有风险的。
• Undeveloped Supply and Distribution Channels 供销渠道不发达
  • When a firm introduces a new-to-the-world technology, often no appropriate suppliers or distributors exist. The firm may face the daunting task of developing and producing its own supplies and distribution service,or assisting in the development of supplier and developer markets. 当一家公司向世界推出一项新技术时，通常没有合适的供应商或分销商。公司可能面临开发和生产自己的供应和分销服务，或协助开发供应商和开发商市场的艰巨任务。
• Immature Enabling Technologies and Complements 不成熟的使能技术和补充
  • When firms develop technologies, they often rely on other producers of enabling technologies. 当企业开发技术时，它们往往依赖于其他使能技术的生产商。
  • Enabling technologies 支持技术：一种使新产品、服务或系统得以实现的关键技术，通常用于推动创新和发展。
  • Component technologies that are necessary for the performance or desirability of a given innovation. 对某一创新的性能或可取性所必需的组件技术。
• Uncertainty of Customer Requirements 顾客需求的不确定性
  • A first mover to the market may face considerable uncertainty about what product features customers will ultimately desire and how much they will be willing to pay for them. For a very new product technology, market research may be of little help. Customers may have little idea of the value of the technology or the role it would play in their lives. As a consequence, first movers may find that their early product offerings must be revised as the market begins to reveal customer preferences. 首先进入市场的企业可能会面临相当大的不确定性，比如客户最终会想要什么样的产品功能，以及他们愿意为此支付多少钱。对于一项非常新的产品技术，市场调查可能没有什么帮助。消费者可能不太了解这项技术的价值，也不知道它将在他们的生活中扮演什么角色。因此，先行者可能会发现，随着市场开始揭示消费者的偏好，他们早期提供的产品必须进行修改。

Follower Advantages

“Free ride” on the pioneering firm’s investment in technology and market development

“免费搭乘”创业公司在技术和市场开发上的投资

• Technology: Imitation may be cheaper than innovation. 技术:模仿可能比创新更便宜。
• Buyer education: Pioneer’s advertising enhanced consumers’ awareness. 买家教育:先锋的广告增强了消费者的意识。
• Employee training: Followers may hire pioneer’s trained employees. Knowledge spillovers. 员工培训:追随者可以雇佣先锋培训过的员工。知识溢出效应。
• Infrastructure development: Pioneer’s investment in developing a support industry and in obtaining regulatory approval benefits others 基础设施发展:先锋在发展支持产业和获得监管批准方面的投资使其他人受益

Avoid some of the costs and uncertainties

避免一些成本和不确定性

Grasp the discontinuities in technology and in customers’ needs

把握技术和客户需求的不连续性

U-shape Relationship

Timing of entry has a U-shape relationship with the likelihood of lockout: entering very early or very late increases the likelihood of technological lockout.

进入时间与锁定的可能性呈u型关系:进入得非常早或非常晚都会增加技术锁定的可能性。

Factors Influencing Optimal Timing of Entry

In very early market stages, a technology may be underdeveloped and its fit with customer needs unknown. In late market stages, a technology may be well understood, but competitors may have already captured controlling shares of the market. How does a firm decide whether to attempt to pioneer a technology category or to wait while others do so?

在非常早期的市场阶段，一项技术可能不发达，不知道是否适合客户需求。在市场的后期阶段，一项技术可能被很好地理解，但竞争对手可能已经占据了市场的控制份额。一家公司如何决定是尝试开创一种技术类别，还是等待其他公司这样做?

The answer will depend on several factors, including customer certainty, the margin of improvement offered by the new technology, the state of enabling technologies and complementary goods, the threat of competitive entry, the degree to which the industry exhibits increasing returns, andthe firm’s resources.

答案将取决于几个因素，包括客户确定性、新技术提供的改进幅度、使能技术和互补产品的状态、竞争进入的威胁、行业表现出增加回报的程度以及公司的资源。

1. How certain are customer preferences? 客户偏好有多确定?

• When new-to-the-world technologies are first developed, customers may have difficulty understanding the technology and its role in their life. Both producers and customers may face considerable ambiguity about the importance of various features of the technology. As producers and customers gain experience with the technology, features that initially seemed compelling may turn out to be unnecessary, and features that had seemed unimportant may turn out to be crucial. 当新技术首次被开发出来时，客户可能很难理解这项技术及其在他们生活中的作用。对于该技术的各种特性的重要性，生产商和客户都可能面临相当大的模糊性。随着生产者和消费者对这项技术的经验积累，最初看起来引人注目的功能可能会变得不必要，而看起来不重要的功能可能会变得至关重要。
• For example, Sony’s PlayStation2 VS Microsoft’s Xbox
• If customer needs(User pain points) are well understood, it is more feasible to enter the market earlier. 如果很好地理解了客户需求(用户痛点)，那么更早进入市场就更可行。

2. How much improvement does the innovation provide over previous solutions? 与以前的解决方案相比，创新提供了多少改进?

• The degree to which the technology represents an improvement over previous technologies increases a firm’s likelihood of successful early entry. That is, when a technology makes a dramatic improvement over previous generations or different technologies that serve similar functions, it will more rapidly gain customer acceptance. There will be less ambiguity about the value of the technology and more early adoptions (as well as more support by complementary goods providers); as a consequence, customer expectations should become known sooner, and adoptions should be more rapid. 技术相对于先前技术的改进程度增加了公司成功早期进入的可能性。也就是说，当一项技术比前几代技术或服务于类似功能的不同技术有显著改进时，它将更快地获得客户的接受。关于技术价值的模糊性将会减少，更多的早期采用(以及更多的互补产品供应商的支持);因此，应该更快地了解客户的期望，并且应该更快地采用。

3. Does the innovation require enabling technologies, and are these technologies sufficiently mature? 创新是否需要启用技术，这些技术是否足够成熟?

• As mentioned earlier, many innovations rely on crucial enabling technologies to ensure their performance. 如前所述，许多创新依赖于关键的支持技术来确保其性能。
• A high-definition television set is of little value if networks are incapable of broadcasting in high definition; 如果网络无法播放高清电视，那么一台高清电视机就没有多大价值;
• Cellular phones or portable stereos would have little value if small and long-lasting batteries were unavailable. 如果没有小而耐用的电池，手机或便携式音响就没有什么价值了。
• A developer must identify which enabling technologies will affect the performance of the new innovation and assess the degree to which those technologies are mature enough (or will be mature enough) to deliver the desired performance. More mature enabling technologies allow earlier entry; less mature enabling technologies may favor waiting for enabling technologies to be further developed. 开发人员必须确定哪些启用技术将影响新创新的性能，并评估这些技术足够成熟(或将足够成熟)以交付所需性能的程度。更成熟的支持技术允许更早进入;不太成熟的使能技术可能更倾向于等待使能技术的进一步发展。

4. Do complementary goods influence the value of the innovation, and are they sufficiently available? 互补产品是否会影响创新的价值，它们是否足够可用?

• If the value of an innovation hinges critically on the availability and quality of complementary goods, then the state of complementary goods determines the likelihood of successful entry. Not all innovations require complementary goods, and many more innovations can utilize existing complementary goods. 如果创新的价值关键取决于互补产品的可用性和质量，那么互补产品的状态决定了成功进入的可能性。并不是所有的创新都需要互补产品，更多的创新可以利用现有的互补产品。

5. How high is the threat of competitive entry? 竞争进入的威胁有多高?

• If there are significant entry barriers or few potential competitors with the resources and capabilities to enter the market, the firm may be able to wait while customer requirements and the technology evolve. Over time, one would expect customer expectations to become more certain, enabling technologies to improve, and support goods and services to be developed, thus increasing the likelihood that sponsored technologies will possess a set of attributes that meet consumer demands. However, if the technology proves to be valuable, other firms are also likely to be attracted to the market. Thus, if entry barriers are low, the market could quickly become quite competitive, and entering a market that has already become highly competitive can be much more challenging than entering an emerging market. Margins may already have been driven down to levels that require competitors to be highly efficient, and access to distribution channels may be limited. If the threat of competitive entry is high, the firm may need to enter earlier to establish brand image, capture market share, and secure relationships with suppliers and distributors. 如果存在重大的进入壁垒，或者有资源和能力进入市场的潜在竞争对手很少，公司可能会等待客户需求和技术的发展。随着时间的推移，人们会期望客户的期望变得更加确定，从而使技术得到改进，并支持产品和服务的开发，从而增加了赞助技术拥有满足消费者需求的一组属性的可能性。然而，如果这项技术被证明是有价值的，其他公司也可能被吸引到这个市场。因此，如果进入壁垒较低，市场可能很快变得相当有竞争力，进入一个已经变得高度竞争的市场可能比进入一个新兴市场更具挑战性。利润率可能已经被压低到要求竞争对手提高效率的水平，而且分销渠道可能受到限制。如果竞争进入的威胁很高，公司可能需要更早进入，以建立品牌形象，夺取市场份额，并确保与供应商和分销商的关系。
• Whether and When to Enter?
  • In a study of 30 years of data on entry into the medical diagnostic imaging industry, Will Mitchell examined the factors that drive whether and when a firm that is an incumbent in one subfield of an industry chooses to enter a newly emerging subfield of the industry. Will Mitchell对30年来进入医疗诊断成像行业的数据进行了研究，他研究了驱动一家在某一行业的现有公司是否以及何时选择进入该行业的新兴子领域的因素。
  • Mitchell pointed out that entry barriers and imitability of a new product (for example, whether it can be effectively protected by patents) interact to create different incentives for timing. 米切尔指出，进入壁垒和新产品的可模仿性(例如，它是否能得到专利的有效保护)相互作用，产生了不同的时机激励。
  • First,if only one firm can produce an inimitable good, it can enter if and when it wants. 首先，如果只有一家公司能够生产一种独一无二的商品，那么只要它愿意，它就可以随时进入。
  • However, if several firms could produce a good that will subsequently be inimitable, they may race to do so to capture the market. In such a circumstance, being early confers a significant advantage. 然而，如果几家公司能够生产出一种随后将是独一无二的产品，他们可能会竞相这样做以占领市场。在这种情况下，早到具有显著的优势。
  • Finally, if the good is expected to be highly imitable (for example, if it would be difficult to effectively protect with patents because competitors could easily invent around the patent), then firms will prefer to wait while others bear the expense of developing and introducing the good. There are disincentives to being early to market. 最后，如果商品被认为是高度可模仿的(例如，由于竞争对手可以轻易地围绕专利进行发明创造，因此很难有效地利用专利进行保护)，那么企业将更愿意等待，而其他人则承担开发和引入该商品的费用。过早进入市场是有阻碍因素的。

6. Is the industry likely to experience increasing returns to adoption? 该行业是否有可能体验到越来越多的采用回报?

• In industries that have increasing returns to adoption due to strong learning curve effects or network externalities, allowing competitors to get a head start in building an installed base can be very risky. If a competitor’s offering builds a significant installed base, the cycle of self-reinforcing advantages could make it difficult for the firm to ever catch up. Furthermore, if there are forces encouraging adoption of a single dominant design, a competitor’s technology may be selected. If protection mechanisms such as patents prevent the firm from offering a compatible technology, the firm may be locked out. 在由于强大的学习曲线效应或网络外部性而获得越来越多的采用回报的行业，允许竞争对手在建立安装基础方面领先可能是非常危险的。如果竞争对手的产品建立了一个重要的安装基础，自我强化的优势循环可能会让该公司很难赶上。此外，如果存在鼓励采用单一主导设计的力量，竞争对手的技术可能会被选择。如果专利等保护机制阻止公司提供兼容的技术，公司可能会被拒之门外。

7. Can the firm withstand early losses? 公司能承受早期的损失吗?

• As was discussed earlier, a first mover often bears the bulk of the expense and risk of developing and introducing a new innovation. First movers thus often need significant amounts of capital that either is available internally (in the case of large firms) or can be accessed externally (e.g., through the debt or equity markets). Furthermore, the first mover must be able to withstand a significant period with little sales revenue from the product. Even in the case of successful new technologies, often a considerable period elapses between the point at which a first mover introduces a new innovation and the point at which the innovation begins to be adopted by the mass market. The s-curve shape of technology diffusion (discussed in Chapter Three and Chapter 13) illustrates this aptly. New innovations tend to be adopted very slowly at first, while innovators and early adopters try the technology and communicate their experience to others. This slow initial takeoff of new innovations has caused the demise of many start-up firms. 正如前面所讨论的，先行者往往承担了开发和引入新创新的大部分费用和风险。因此，先行者往往需要大量的资本，这些资本要么是内部可以获得的(对于大公司来说)，要么是可以从外部获得的(例如，通过债务或股票市场)。此外，先发者必须能够在产品销售收入很少的情况下承受一段很长的时间。即使是成功的新技术，从先驱者推出一项新创新到该创新开始被大众市场采用，通常也要经过相当长的一段时间。技术扩散的s曲线形状(在第三章和第13章讨论)恰当地说明了这一点。一开始，新创新往往被缓慢采纳，而创新者和早期采用者则会尝试技术，并与他人交流他们的经验。这种缓慢的创新起步导致了许多初创公司的消亡。

8. Does the firm have resources to accelerate market acceptance?

• A firm with significant capital resources not only has the capability to withstand a slow market takeoff, but also can invest such resources in accelerating market takeoff. The firm can invest aggressively in market education, supplier and distributor development, and development of complementary goods and services. Each of these strategies can accelerate the early adoption of the innovation, giving the firm much greater discretion over entering early.Thus, a firm’s capital resources can give it some influence on the shape of the adoption curve. 一家拥有大量资本资源的公司不仅有能力承受缓慢的市场起飞，而且还可以将这些资源投资于加速市场起飞。该公司可以积极投资于市场教育、供应商和分销商发展以及互补产品和服务的发展。每一种策略都可以加快创新的早期采用，使公司在早期进入时拥有更大的自由裁量权。因此，企业的资本资源可以对采用曲线的形状产生一定的影响。

9. Is the firm’s reputation likely to reduce the uncertainty of customers, suppliers, and distributors? 公司的声誉是否有可能减少顾客、供应商和分销商的不确定性?

• In addition to capital resources, a firm’s reputation and credibility can also influence its optimal timing of entry. A firm’s reputation can send a strong signal about its likelihood of success with a new technology. Customers, suppliers, and distributors will use the firm’s track record to assess its technological expertise and market prowess. Customers may use the firm’s reputation as a signal of the innovation’s quality, and thus face less ambiguity about adopting the innovation. A firm with a well-respected reputation for successful technological leadership is also more likely to attract suppliers and distributors. Other things being equal, an entrant with a strong reputation can attract adoptions earlier than entrants without strong reputations. 除了资本资源外，企业的声誉和信誉也会影响其最佳进入时机。一家公司的声誉可以发出一个强烈的信号，表明它在一项新技术上成功的可能性。客户、供应商和分销商将利用该公司的往绩记录来评估其技术专长和市场实力。消费者可能会将企业的声誉作为创新质量的信号，从而减少采用创新的模糊性。在成功的技术领导方面拥有良好声誉的公司也更有可能吸引供应商和分销商。在其他条件相同的情况下，一个有良好声誉的公司可以比没有良好声誉的公司更早地吸引收养。

Strategies to Improve Timing Options

The research on new product development cycle time indicates that development time can be greatly shortened by using strategic alliances, cross-functional new product development teams, and parallel development processes. Chapter 11 will deal specifically with how firms can ensure that their innovations are deployed rapidly to the market.

对新产品开发周期时间的研究表明，采用战略联盟、跨职能新产品开发团队和并行开发流程可以大大缩短开发时间。第11章将专门讨论企业如何确保他们的创新能够迅速投入市场。

Parallel development process means When multiple stages of the new product development process occur simultaneously.

并行开发过程是指新产品开发过程的多个阶段同时发生。

In a word,

• Some firms are forced to be followers, then they do not have the options in timing strategies. 一些公司被迫成为跟随者，因此他们在时机策略上没有选择。
• To have more choices in its timing of entry, a firm needs to be able to develop the innovation early or quickly. 为了在进入时间上有更多的选择，公司需要能够尽早或快速地开发创新。
• A firm with fast-cycle development processes can be both an early entrant, and can quickly refine its innovation in response to customer feedback. 具有快速开发周期流程的公司既可以是早期进入者，也可以根据客户反馈快速改进其创新。
• In essence, a firm with very fast-cycle development processes can reap both first- and second-mover advantages. 从本质上讲，拥有非常快的开发周期的公司可以同时获得先发和后发优势。

Enter Earlier or Wait to Follow?【可以看作是影响进入时机的因素合起来的一个表格】

Lessons from Practice

Exploit the sources while avoiding the traps:

挖掘资源，避开陷阱：

• Obtain patents or copyrights 获得专利或版权
• Fill positioning gap 填充定位间隙
• Minimize technological leakage 尽量减少技术泄漏
• Retain employees 留住员工
• Develop organizational capabilities 发展组织能力
• Track the evolution of customer needs 跟踪客户需求的演变
• Be prepared to cannibalize 做好自相残杀的准备
• Maintain flexibility 保持灵活性：指在某种情况下能够适应变化，不断调整自己的计划或行动方式。
• Study competitors 研究竞争对手

C5 Summary【复习省流版】

A first mover may be able to build brand loyalty and a reputation for technological leadership, preemptively capture scarce resources, and exploit buyer switching costs.

先行者也许能够建立品牌忠诚度和技术领先的声誉，抢先获取稀缺资源，并利用买家转换成本。

First movers may also benefit from increasing returns to adoption due to learning curve effects and network externalities.

由于学习曲线效应和网络外部性，先行者也可能从不断增加的采用回报中受益。

Some studies, however, argue that first movers may have higher failure rates. First movers have to bear the brunt of R&D expenses and may face considerable consumer ambiguity. Second movers can capitalize on the R&D and marketing efforts of the first mover, producing a technology that costs less to develop and that corrects for any of the first mover’s mistakes.

然而，一些研究认为，先行者的失败率可能更高。先行者必须承受研发费用的冲击，并可能面临相当大的消费者歧义。后发者可以利用先发者的研发和营销努力，生产出一种开发成本更低的技术，并纠正先发者的任何错误。

First movers may also face poorly developed supplier markets, distribution channels, and availability of complementary goods, all of which can increase the challenge of successfully launching their new product or service. Enabling technologies may also be immature, hindering the new technology’s performance.

先行者还可能面临不发达的供应商市场、分销渠道和补充产品的可用性，所有这些都可能增加成功推出新产品或服务的挑战。启用技术也可能不成熟，阻碍了新技术的性能。

The biggest disadvantage many first movers face is uncertainty over customer requirements. Customers themselves may be uncertain about what features or form they desire in a new innovation. A firm may have to withstand significant losses before customer preferences become more certain.

许多先行者面临的最大劣势是客户需求的不确定性。顾客自己可能也不确定他们想要什么样的创新特性或形式。在顾客的偏好变得更加确定之前，公司可能不得不承受重大损失。

The optimal timing of entry is thus a function of several factors, including the margin of advantage offered by the new innovation, the state of enabling technologies and complements, the state of customer expectations, the threat of competitive entry, whether the industry faces increasing returns, and a firm’s resources.

因此，进入的最佳时机是几个因素的函数，包括新创新提供的优势边际，使能技术和互补的状态，客户期望的状态，竞争进入的威胁，行业是否面临增加的回报，以及公司的资源。

Firms that have fast-cycle development processes have more options when it comes to timing. Not only does a fast-cycle developer have an advantage in introducing innovations earlier, but it also can be its own fast follower by quickly introducing refined versions of its own technology.

拥有快速开发周期的公司在时间选择上有更多的选择。快周期开发人员不仅在更早地引入创新方面具有优势，而且还可以通过快速引入自己技术的改进版本来成为自己的快速跟随者。

接下来我们要讨论的是如何确定组织的战略方向

Overview

Formulating a company’s technological innovation strategyrequires the firm to assess its current position (e.g.strengths, weaknesses, core competencies, sources of sustainable competitive advantage), and define its strategic direction (e.g. how should the value proposition evolve overtime, resource needs).

制定公司的技术创新战略需要公司评估其当前的地位(例如，优势，劣势，核心能力，可持续竞争优势的来源)，并确定其战略方向(例如，价值主张应如何随着时间的推移而演变，资源需求)。

A company’s strategic intent should be ambitious (i.e. create a gap between existing resources and capabilities and those needed to achieve its intent). Strategic intent development begins with an evaluation of the firm’s capabilities and ideally ends in a plan that cohesively leverages all of the firm’s resources to create a sustainable competitive advantage.

公司的战略意图应该是雄心勃勃的(例如，在现有资源和能力与实现其意图所需的资源和能力之间创造一个差距)。战略意图的发展始于对公司能力的评估，理想的结果是制定一个计划，集中利用公司的所有资源来创造可持续的竞争优势。

Assessing the Firm’s Current Position

External Analysis

• PEST(macroscopic）

• Two common methods（microcosmic）:

  • Porter’s Five-Force Model (degree of rivalry, the likelihood of new firms entering the industry, the power of buyers and suppliers and the availability of substitutes) 波特五力模型(竞争程度、新公司进入行业的可能性、买家和供应商的力量以及替代品的可获得性)
  • Stakeholder Analysis 利益相关者分析：评估一个系统及其潜在变化与相关利益相关方之间的关系的过程。

Porter’s Five-Force Model

While the five-force model was originally developed to assess industry attractiveness (i.e., “Is this a desirable industry in which to compete?”), in practice the model is often used to assess a specific firm’s external environment (i.e., “What factors in the firm’s external environment create threats and opportunities for the firm?”)

虽然五力模型最初是为了评估行业吸引力而开发的(即，“这是一个值得竞争的理想行业吗?”)，但在实践中，该模型通常用于评估特定公司的外部环境(即，“公司外部环境中的哪些因素会给公司带来威胁和机会?”)

The difference between these two approaches is subtle but important. In the former approach, the analysis focuses on the industry level, treating all competitors as roughly the same, and its objective is to ascertain whether the industry as a whole will tend to be profitable. In the latter approach, the analysis may take the perspective of a particular firm, often identifying ways in which the external forces differentially affect the firm vis-à-vis its competitors, and its objective is to identify threats and opportunities for the firm.

这两种方法之间的区别是微妙而重要的。在前一种方法中，分析侧重于行业层面，将所有竞争对手视为大致相同，其目标是确定整个行业是否会趋于盈利。在后一种方法中，分析可能采取特定公司的观点，通常确定外部力量对公司与其竞争对手的不同影响方式，其目标是确定公司的威胁和机会。

In this model, the attractiveness of an industry and a firm’s opportunities and threats are identified by analyzing five forces

在这个模型中，通过分析五种力量来确定行业的吸引力和企业的机会和威胁

• 

The five forces are:

1. The degree of existing rivalry 现存竞争的程度

• An industry’s degree of rivalry is influenced by a number of factors. 一个行业的竞争程度受到许多因素的影响。
  • First, the number and relative size of competitors will shape the nature of rivalry. In general, the more firms competing that are of comparable size, the more competitive the industry will be. There are, however, exceptions to this generality. 首先，竞争者的数量和相对规模将决定竞争的性质。一般来说，规模相当的竞争公司越多，行业的竞争就越激烈。然而，这种普遍性也有例外。
  • Rivalry is also influenced by the degree to which competitors are differentiated from each other. 竞争还受到竞争对手彼此分化程度的影响。
  • Demand conditions also influence degree of rivalry. 需求条件也影响竞争程度。

Two important terms

• Oligopolistic industries: Highly consolidated industries with a few large competitors. 寡头垄断行业:高度整合的行业，只有少数大型竞争对手。
• Exit barriers: Costs or other commitments that make it difficult for firms to abandon an industry (large fixed-asset investments, emotional commitment to the industry, etc.). 退出壁垒:使企业难以放弃某一行业的成本或其他承诺(大型固定资产投资、对该行业的情感承诺等)。

2. Threat of potential entrants 潜在进入者的威胁

The threat of potential entrants is influenced by both the degree to which the industry is likely to attract new entrants (i.e., is it profitable, growing, or otherwise alluring?) and the height of entry barriers.

潜在进入者的威胁受到行业可能吸引新进入者的程度(即，它是否有利可图、正在增长或具有其他吸引力?)和进入壁垒的高度的影响。

• Entry barriers 进入壁垒：阻止一家公司在特定行业开展业务的因素或条件。
• Conditions that make it difficult or expensive for new firms to enter an industry (government regulation, large start-up costs, etc.). 使新公司进入一个行业变得困难或昂贵的条件(政府监管、高昂的启动成本等)。

Entry barriers can include such factors as large start-up costs, brand loyalty, difficulty in gaining access to suppliers or distributors, government regulation, threat of retaliation by existing competitors, and many others. While profitability and growth may attract new entrants, entry barriers will deter them.

进入壁垒可能包括诸如启动成本高、品牌忠诚度高、难以接触到供应商或分销商、政府监管、现有竞争对手的报复威胁等因素。虽然盈利能力和增长可能会吸引新进入者，但进入壁垒会阻碍他们。

To effectively compete against these companies requires that an entrant be able to manufacture, advertise, and distribute on a large scale, suggesting significant start-up costs for an entrant to achieve a competitive position.

为了有效地与这些公司竞争，要求进入者能够大规模地制造、宣传和分销，这表明进入者要获得竞争地位需要大量的启动成本。

However, some of these capabilities could be obtained through partnerships with other firms, such as having contract manufacturers handle production and having mobile phone service providers handle distribution, thereby lowering start-up costs.

但是，其中一些能力可以通过与其他公司的伙伴关系获得，例如让合同制造商处理生产，让移动电话服务提供商处理分销，从而降低启动成本。

3. Bargaining power of suppliers 供应商议价能力

供应商议价能力：指供应商在与购买方进行价格谈判时所具有的影响力和优势。

The degree to which the firm relies on one or a few suppliers will influence its ability to negotiate good terms.

公司对一个或几个供应商的依赖程度将影响其谈判良好条款的能力。

The degree to which the firm relies on one or a few suppliers will influence its ability to negotiate good terms.

公司对一个或几个供应商的依赖程度将影响其谈判良好条款的能力。

If there are few suppliers or suppliers are highly differentiated, the firm may have little choice in its buying decision, and thus have little leverage over the supplier to negotiate prices, delivery schedules, or other terms. On the other hand, if suppliers are very abundant and/or are not highly differentiated, the firm may be able to force the suppliers to bid against one another for the sale. The amount the firm purchases from the supplier is also relevant. If the firm’s purchases constitute the bulk of a supplier’s sales, the supplier will be heavily reliant upon the firm and the supplier will have little bargaining power. Likewise, if the supplier’s sales constitute a large portion of the firm’s purchases, the firm will be heavily reliant upon the supplier and the supplier will have more bargaining power.

如果供应商很少，或者供应商是高度差异化的，企业在其采购决策中可能没有什么选择，因此在谈判价格、交货时间表或其他条款时对供应商几乎没有影响力。另一方面，如果供应商非常丰富和/或没有高度差异化，企业可能会迫使供应商相互投标。企业从供应商采购的金额也相关。如果企业的采购构成了供应商销售的大部分，供应商将严重依赖该企业，供应商将几乎没有议价能力。同样，如果供应商的销售占企业采购的很大一部分，企业就会严重依赖供应商，供应商就会有更大的议价能力。

If the firm faces switching costs that make it difficult or expensive to change suppliers, this will also increase the supplier’s bargaining power. Finally, if the firm can backward vertically integrate (i.e., produce its own supplies), this will lessen supplier bargaining power, and if the supplier can threaten to forward vertically integrate into the firm’s business, this will increase the supplier’s bargaining power.

如果企业面临转换成本，使得更换供应商变得困难或昂贵，这也将增加供应商的议价能力。最后，如果企业可以反向垂直整合(即生产自己的供应)，这将降低供应商的议价能力，如果供应商可以威胁向前垂直整合到企业的业务中，这将增加供应商的议价能力。

Two important terms

• Switching costs 转换成本：指消费者从一个产品或服务切换到另一个产品或服务所需承担的成本，包括时间、金钱和精力等方面的投入。
  • Factors that make it difficult or expensive to change suppliers or buyers, such as investments in specialized assets to work with a particular supplier or buyer. 使更换供应商或买家变得困难或昂贵的因素，例如与特定供应商或买家合作的专业资产投资。
• Vertical integration 垂直整合：将制造业务与原材料来源和/或分销渠道在单一所有权或管理下进行整合，特别是为了最大化利润。
  • Getting into the business of one’s suppliers (backward vertical integration) or one’s buyers (forward vertical integration). For example, a firm that begins producing its own supplies has practiced backward vertical integration, and a firm that buys its distributor has practiced forward vertical integration. 进入供应商(后向垂直整合)或买家(前向垂直整合)的业务。例如，一家开始生产自己的供应品的公司实行了向后垂直整合，而一家收购经销商的公司实行了向前垂直整合

4. Bargaining power of buyers 购买者的议价能力

Many of the same factors that influence the bargaining power of suppliers have an analogous role with the bargaining power of buyers. The degree to which the firm is reliant on a few customers will increase the customer’s bargaining power, and vice versa.

许多影响供应商议价能力的相同因素与买方议价能力具有类似的作用。公司对少数客户的依赖程度会增加客户的议价能力，反之亦然。

If the firm’s product is highly differentiated, buyers will typically experience less bargaining power, and if the firm’s product is undifferentiated, buyers will typically experience greater bargaining power. If buyers face switching costs, this is likely to lower their bargaining power, and if the firm faces switching costs to work with other buyers, this will increase the buyer’s bargaining power. Finally, if the buyers can threaten to backward vertically integrate, this will increase their bargaining power, and if the firm can threaten to forward vertically integrate, it will lower customer bargaining power.

如果公司的产品是高度差异化的，买家通常会体验到更少的议价能力，如果公司的产品是无差异化的，买家通常会体验到更大的议价能力。如果买方面临转换成本，这可能会降低其议价能力，如果企业面临与其他买方合作的转换成本，这将增加买方的议价能力。最后，如果买方能够威胁向后纵向整合，则会提高其议价能力;如果企业能够威胁向前纵向整合，则会降低客户议价能力。

5. Threat of substitutes 替代品的威胁

Substitutes are products or services that are not considered competitors, but fulfill a strategically equivalent role for the customer.

替代品是不被认为是竞争对手的产品或服务，但在战略上对客户起着同等的作用。

For example, Starbucks may consider other coffeehouses as competitors, but other social destinations (such as bars or restaurants) or beverages (such as soft drinks or beer) as substitutes.

例如，星巴克可能将其他咖啡馆视为竞争对手，但将其他社交目的地(如酒吧或餐馆)或饮料(如软饮料或啤酒)视为替代品。

6. Threat of complements 互补品的威胁

As has been discussed in several of the earlier chapters, complements are products that enhance the usefulness or desirability of a good.

正如前面几章所讨论的那样，互补品是增强商品有用性或可取性的产品。

Complements: Products or services that enhance the usefulness or desirability of another product.

互补:增强其他产品的有用性或可取性的产品或服务。

The availability, quality, and price of complements will influence the threats and opportunities posed by the industry. It is important to consider (1) how important complements are in the industry, (2) whether complements are differentially available for the products of various rivals (impacting the attractiveness of their goods), and (3) who captures the value offered by the complements.

补品的可用性、质量和价格将影响该行业带来的威胁和机会。重要的是要考虑(1)互补产品在行业中有多重要，(2)互补产品对不同竞争对手的产品是否有不同的可用性(影响其产品的吸引力)，以及(3)谁获得了互补产品提供的价值。

Relationships between Innovation and the Five Forces

Innovation can generate substitutes, while existing firms can improve their products to compete against substitutes.

创新可以产生替代品，而现有企业可以改进其产品以与替代品竞争。

Innovation can lower the entry barriers, while existing firms can raise entry barriers through technology protection.

创新可以降低进入壁垒，而现有企业可以通过技术保护提高进入壁垒。

Suppliers can enhance the control over buyers, while buyers can weaken the dependence on suppliers through innovation.

供应商可以加强对买家的控制，而买家可以通过创新来减弱对供应商的依赖。

Firms can establish monopoly through innovation, while they can break monopoly through innovation.

企业可以通过创新建立垄断，也可以通过创新打破垄断。

Stakeholder Analysis

Stakeholder: Any entity that has an interest (“stake”) in the organization.

利益相关者:在组织中有利益(“利害关系”)的任何实体。

Stakeholder models are often used for both strategic and normative purposes.

涉众模型通常用于战略和规范目的。

• A strategic stakeholder analysis emphasizes the stakeholder management issues that are likely to impactthe firm’s financial performance. 战略利益相关者分析强调可能影响公司财务绩效的利益相关者管理问题。
• While a normative stakeholder analysis emphasizes the stakeholder management issues the firm ought to attend to due to their ethical or moral implications. 而规范的利益相关者分析则强调利益相关者管理问题，由于其伦理或道德含义，公司应该参加。

Typically, the first step of a stakeholder analysis is to identify all the parties that will be affected by the behavior of the firm (and thus have a “stake” in the firm). 通常，利益相关者分析的第一步是确定所有将受公司行为影响的各方(因此在公司中拥有“股份”)。

• Stakeholders include (but are not limited to) stockholders, employees, customers, suppliers, lenders, the local community, government, and rivals 利益相关者包括(但不限于)股东、员工、客户、供应商、贷款人、当地社区、政府和竞争对手

Internal Analysis

BCG matrix

BCG矩阵：波士顿咨询公司（Boston Consulting Group）提出的一种产品组合管理工具，用于帮助企业分析其产品线和业务单位的市场表现，从而制定相应的战略。

A company should have a portfolio of products with different growth rates and different market shares. The portfolio composition is a function of the balance between cash flows.… Margins and cash generated are a function of market share

一个公司应该拥有不同增长率和不同市场份额的产品组合。投资组合的构成是现金流之间余额的函数。利润率和产生的现金是市场份额的函数

回到Internal Analysis

The analysis of the internal environment of the firm most often begins with identifying the firm’s strengths and weaknesses. Sometimes this task is organized by examining each of the activities of the value chain

对企业内部环境的分析通常是从确定企业的优势和劣势开始的。有时，这项任务是通过检查价值链中的每个活动来组织的

In Michael Porter’s model of a value chain, activities are divided into primary activities and support activities.

在Michael Porter的价值链模型中，活动分为主要活动和支持活动。

• Primary activities include inbound logistics (all activities required to receive, store, and disseminate inputs), operations(activities involved in the transformation of inputs into outputs), outbound logistics (activities required to collect, store, and distribute outputs), marketing and sales (activities to inform buyers about products and services and to induce their purchase), andservice(after-sales activities required to keep the product or service working effectively). 主要活动包括入站物流(接收、储存和分发投入所需的所有活动)、运营(将投入转化为产出的活动)、出站物流(收集、储存和分发产出所需的活动)、营销和销售(向购买者介绍产品和服务并诱导其购买的活动)和服务(保持产品或服务有效运行所需的售后活动)。
• Support activities include procurement (the acquisition of inputs, but not their physical transfer, as that would be covered in inbound logistics), human resource management (activities such as recruiting, hiring, training, and compensating personnel), technology development (activities involved in developing and managing equipment, hardware, software, procedures, and knowledge necessary to transform inputs into outputs), and infrastructure(functions such as accounting, legal counsel, finance, planning, public affairs, government relations, quality assurance, and general management necessary to ensure smooth functioning of the firm). 支持性活动包括采购(投入的获取，但不包括其实物转移，因为这将在入境物流中涵盖)、人力资源管理(如招聘、招聘、培训和补偿人员等活动)、技术开发(涉及开发和管理将投入转化为产出所需的设备、硬件、软件、程序和知识的活动)和基础设施(如会计、法律顾问、财务、计划、公共事务、政府关系、质量保证和确保公司顺利运作所需的一般管理)。

The applicability of this model

这个模型的适用性

• This generic model can be adapted to better fit a particular firm’s needs. 这种通用的模式可以更好地适应特定公司的需求。
  • For example, for a biotechnology firm or software developer, research and development is likely to be a primary activity and inbound logistics may be insignificant. 例如，对于生物技术公司或软件开发商来说，研究和开发可能是主要活动，而入境物流可能无关紧要。

To be a potential source of sustainable competitive advantage, resources must be rare, valuable, durable, and inimitable.

要成为可持续竞争优势的潜在来源，资源必须是稀有的、有价值的、持久的和不可模仿的。

• For example, if valuable resources are tacit (i.e., they cannot be readily codified in written form), path dependent (i.e., they are dependent on a particular historical sequence of events), socially complex (i.e., they arise through the complex interaction of multiple people), or causally ambiguous (i.e., it is unclear how the resource gives rise to value), they will be extremely difficult to imitate. 例如，如果有价值的资源是隐性的(即，它们不能轻易地以书面形式编纂)，路径依赖(即，它们依赖于特定的历史事件序列)，社会复杂(即，它们通过多人的复杂互动产生)，或者因果含糊(即，不清楚资源如何产生价值)，它们将极难模仿。

Important concepts:

• Resources are difficult (or impossible) to imitate when they are: 资源是很难(或不可能)模仿的，当它们是:
  • Tacit resources: Resources of an intangible nature (such as knowledge) that cannot be readily codified. 隐性资源:具有无形性质的资源(如知识)，不能轻易编纂。
  • Socially complex resources: Resources or activities that emerge through the interaction of multiple individuals. 社会复杂资源:通过多个个体的相互作用而产生的资源或活动。
  • Causal ambiguity: The relationship between a resource and the outcome it produces is poorly understood. 因果歧义:资源和它产生的结果之间的关系不太清楚。

For example,

• Talent is typically considered to be a tacit and causally ambiguous resource. It is thought to be an inherent trait that cannot be trained, and the mechanisms by which individuals acquire it or tap it are poorly understood. 才能通常被认为是一种隐性和因果模糊的资源。它被认为是一种无法训练的内在特质，人们对个体获得或利用它的机制知之甚少
• A first-mover advantage is a path-dependent advantage that cannot be copied—once a firm has become the first mover in a category, other firms no longer have the opportunity to be first. Once the firm has established a baseline internal analysis, it can move on to identifying its core competencies and formulate its strategic intent 先发优势是一种不可复制的路径依赖优势——一旦一家公司成为某个领域的先行者，其他公司就再也没有机会成为先行者了。一旦公司建立了基本的内部分析，它就可以继续确定其核心竞争力并制定其战略意图

Core Competencies

Gallon, Stillman & Coates suggest a six-step approach for identifying and cultivating a firm’s core competencies:

加仑、斯蒂尔曼和科茨公司提出了确定和培养公司核心竞争力的六步方法:

1. Starting the program begins with the formation of a steering committee, the appointment of a program manager, and the communication of the overall goals to all team members. The program manager should organize teams that will be responsible for circulating throughout the firm to compile an exhaustive inventory of capabilities. 计划的启动始于指导委员会的组建，计划经理的任命，以及向所有团队成员传达总体目标。项目经理应该组织团队，负责整个公司的循环，以编制详尽的能力清单。
2. Constructing an inventory of capabilities is done by categorizing the capabilities identified in step one by type, strength, importance, and criticality to firm operations. 通过将第一步中确定的能力按类型、强度、重要性和对公司运营的关键性进行分类，可以构建能力清单。
3. Assessing capabilities proceeds by evaluating the criticality of each competency followed by an evaluation of the organizations current level of expertise in each competency. 能力评估是通过评估每个能力的重要性，然后评估组织在每个能力中的当前专业水平来进行的。
4. Identifying candidate competencies culls the list of capabilities to those the firm should focus on and grow. 确定候选人的能力可以剔除公司应该关注和培养的能力清单。
5. Testing the candidate core competencies using Prahalad and Hamel’s original criteria is the next step (see above). 使用prahalad和Hamel的原始标准测试候选人的核心竞争力是下一步(见上文)。
6. Evaluating the core competency position of the firm to determine whether competitors have similar competencies and to identify areas in which the organization needs to improve. 评估公司的核心竞争力地位，以确定竞争对手是否具有类似的竞争力，并确定组织需要改进的领域。

The terms “competency” and “capability” are used interchangeably in the text because they are semantically equivalent (though some researchers have attempted to distinguish between them) and our focus is on emphasizing what makes a competency a core competency and on demonstrating how core competencies or capabilities are achieved by integrating a variety of more basic or rudimentary capabilities.

“竞争力”和“能力”这两个术语在本文中可以互换使用，因为它们在语义上是等价的(尽管一些研究者试图区分它们)，我们的重点是强调是什么使一项竞争力成为核心竞争力，并展示核心竞争力或能力是如何通过整合各种更基本或基本的能力来实现的。

Brief Summary

Assess which strengths have potential to be sustainable competitive advantage

评估哪些优势有潜力成为可持续的竞争优势

Resources are difficult (or impossible) to imitate when they are:

资源是很难(或不可能)模仿的，当它们是:

• Tacit 隐性的
• Path dependent 路径依赖
• Socially complex 社会复杂的
• Causally ambiguous 有因果歧义的

How to Identifying a Firm’s Core Competencies

Gallon, Stillman and Coates offer a step-by-step program for identifying core competencies.

盖伦、斯蒂尔曼和科茨提供了一套逐步确定核心竞争力的方案。

1. Assemble a steering committee, appoint a program manager, and communicate the overall goals of the project to all members of the firm. 组建一个指导委员会，任命一个项目经理，并向公司的所有成员传达项目的总体目标。
2. Constructing an inventory of capabilities categorized by type. Assess their strength，importance, and criticality. 构建按类型分类的能力清单。评估它们的强度、重要性和临界性。
3. Organize capabilities by both their criticality and the current level of expertise within the firm for each. 根据每个能力的重要性和公司内当前的专业水平来组织能力。
4. Distill competencies into possible candidates for the firm to focus on. No options should be thrown out yet. 将能力提炼为公司关注的可能候选人。目前还不应放弃任何选择。
5. Testing the candidate core competencies against Prahalad and Hamel’s original criteria. 根据Prahalad和Hamel的原始标准测试候选人的核心竞争力。
6. Evaluate the firm’s position in the core competency. 评估公司在核心竞争力中的地位。

Sources of Core Competencies

A core competency arises from a firm’s ability to combine and harmonize multiple primary abilities.

核心竞争力源于企业整合和协调多种主要能力的能力。

• Core technologies 核心技术
• Technology development 技术发展
• Human resources 人力资源
• Marketing network and capacities 营销网络和能力
• Efficient management 高效管理
• Brand and reputation 品牌和声誉
• Organizational culture 组织文化

A firm’s core competencies also depend on building high-quality relationships across different functions and business units.

公司的核心竞争力还取决于在不同职能和业务部门之间建立高质量的关系

Risk of Core Rigidities 核心僵化

The Risk of Core Rigidities is faced by firms when they focus on current capabilities and do not develop new ones. Sometimes the very things that a firm excels at can enslave it, making the firm rigid and overly committed to inappropriate skills and resources.

当企业专注于现有能力而不开发新能力时，就会面临核心僵化的风险。有时候，一家公司擅长的事情可能会奴役它，使公司变得僵化，过度投入不合适的技能和资源。

Strategic Intent 战略意图

A long-term goal that is ambitious, builds upon and stretches firm’s core competencies, and draws from all levels of the organization.

一个雄心勃勃的长期目标，建立和扩展了公司的核心竞争力，并从组织的各个层面汲取经验。

Strategic intent provides clarity, brings about focus, and inspires the people.

战略意图提供了清晰度，带来了焦点，并激励了人们。

The Balanced Scorecard 平衡计分卡

Kaplan and Norton argue that effective performance measurement should including measures of performance that go beyond the balance sheet because the measures used strongly influences how the firm pursues its strategic objectives.

卡普兰和诺顿认为，有效的绩效衡量应该包括超越资产负债表的绩效衡量，因为所使用的衡量标准强烈影响公司如何追求其战略目标。

四个方面：

• Financial perspective 财务视角
  • The financial perspective considers goals such as “meet shareholder’s expectations” or “double our corporate value in seven years.” Measures include return on capital, net cash flow, and earning’s growth. 财务角度考虑的是“满足股东的期望”或“在7年内将公司价值翻一番”等目标。衡量指标包括资本回报率、净现金流和收入增长。
• Customer perspective 顾客视角
  • The customer perspective considers goals such as “improve customer loyalty,” “offer best-in-class customer service,” or “increase customer satisfaction.” Measures include market share, percent of repeat purchases, customer satisfaction surveys, etc. 客户视角考虑的目标包括“提高客户忠诚度”、“提供一流的客户服务”或“提高客户满意度”。衡量标准包括市场份额、重复购买比例、客户满意度调查等。
• Internal perspective 内部视角
  • The internal perspective considers goals such as “reduce internal safety incidents,” “build best-in-class franchise teams,” or “improve inventory management.” Measures include the number of safety incidents per month, franchise quality ratings, stock-out rates, inventory costs, etc. 内部视角考虑诸如“减少内部安全事件”、“建立一流的特许经营团队”或“改善库存管理”等目标。衡量标准包括每月安全事故数量、特许经营质量评级、缺货率、库存成本等。
• Innovation and learning 创新与学习
  • The innovation and learning perspective considers goals such as “accelerate and improve new product development,” or “improve employee skills.” Measures include the percentage of sales from products developed within last five years, average length of the new product development cycle, employee training targets, etc. 创新和学习的角度考虑的目标如“加速和改进新产品开发”或“提高员工技能”。衡量标准包括过去五年内开发的产品的销售百分比，新产品开发周期的平均长度，员工培训目标等。

C6 Summary

Two commonly used models of external analysis are Porter’s five-force model and stakeholder analysis.

常用的两种外部分析模型是波特五力模型和利益相关者分析。

The analysis of the internal environment of the firm often begins with identifying the firm’s strengths and weaknesses. The value chain analysis method can be used for this task.

对企业内部环境的分析通常从确定企业的优势和劣势开始。价值链分析方法可用于此任务。

Core competencies are integrated combinations of abilities that distinguish the firm in the market.

核心竞争力是使企业在市场中脱颖而出的能力的综合组合。

A firm’s strategic intent should build upon and stretch its existing core competencies.

公司的战略意图应该建立在现有核心竞争力的基础上并加以扩展。

接下来我们讨论如何选择创新项目

The Development Budget

Most firms face serious constraints in capital and other resources they can invest in projects.

大多数公司在投资项目的资金和其他资源方面面临严重限制。

Many firms use capital rationing: they set a fixed R&D budget and rank order projects to support.

许多公司实行资本配给:他们设定固定的研发预算，并对项目进行排序。

• Capital rationing: The allocation of a finite quantity of resources over different possible uses. 资本配给:将有限数量的资源分配给不同的可能用途。
• Under capital rationing, the firm sets a fixed R&D budget (often some percentage of the previous year’s sales), and then uses a rank ordering of possible projects to determine which will be funded. 在资本配给制下，公司设定一个固定的研发预算(通常是上一年销售额的一定百分比)，然后使用可能的项目排序来确定哪些项目将得到资助。
• Percentage is typically determined through industry benchmarking, or historical benchmarking of firm’s performance, and/or on a desired level of R&D intensity. 百分比通常通过行业基准，或公司业绩的历史基准，和/或期望的研发强度水平来确定。

Financing New Technology Ventures 为新科技企业融资

Large firms can fund innovation internally; new start-ups must often obtain external financing.

大公司可以在内部资助创新;新成立的公司通常必须获得外部融资。

In first stages of start-up and growth, entrepreneurs may have to rely on family, friends, and credit cards.

在创业和成长的最初阶段，企业家可能不得不依靠家人、朋友和信用卡。

Start-ups might be able to obtain some funding from government grants and loans.

初创企业或许能够从政府拨款和贷款中获得一些资金。

If idea and management are especially promising, entrepreneur may secure funds from “angel investors” (typically seed stage and <$1 million) or venture capitalists (multiple early stages, >$1 million).

如果创意和管理特别有前途，企业家可能会从“天使投资者”(通常是种子阶段，低于100万美元)或风险投资家(多个早期阶段，超过100万美元)那里获得资金。

Quantitative Methods for Choosing Projects 选择项目的定量方法

Quantitative methods enable managers to use rigorous mathematical and statistical comparisons of projects, though the quality of the comparison is ultimately a function of the quality of the original estimates.

定量方法使管理人员能够对项目进行严格的数学和统计比较，尽管比较的质量最终取决于原始估计的质量。

Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) Methods

折现现金流(DCF)方法

【折现现金流：根据未来的成本和收益进行计算，然后将这个数字减少到现在的价值，从而确定一项投资、公司或项目现在的价值。】

• Net Present Value(NPV): Expected cash inflows are discounted and compared to outlays. 净现值(NPV):预期现金流入被折现并与支出进行比较。【净现值：指在扣除原始投资成本后，投资未来净现金流的现值（即未来现金流的差额）。】
• Internal Rate of Return(IRR): The discount rate that makes the net present value of investment zero. 内部收益率(IRR):使投资净现值为零的折现率。【内部收益率：特定投资每年平均赚取的金额，通过将每年赚取的金额与最初投资金额进行比较来计算。】
• Discounted payback period: The time required to break even on a project using discounted cash flows. 折现回收期:使用折现现金流实现项目收支平衡所需的时间。【贴现回收期：贴现回收期是指项目的初始成本与预期现金流的贴现值相等所需的时间（以年为单位），或者是投资回本的时间。它是项目累计净现值等于零的时间段。】

**在本篇笔记中，由于翻译软件的问题，折现和贴现这两个词语表达的是一个意思，他们的英文都是discount，但实际上有所不同，折现主要用在企业方面，而贴现主要用在银行方面，具体请自行了解，我们这里就把这俩当一个东西，都是discount就可以 **

Real Options: Applies stock option model to nonfinancial resource investments.

实物期权:将股票期权模型应用于非金融资源投资。

【实物期权：实物期权估值，也经常被称为实物期权分析，将期权估值技术应用于资本预算决策。实物期权本身是指有权利但无义务进行某些商业举措，例如推迟、放弃、扩大、分阶段或缩减资本投资项目。例如，实物期权估值可以研究投资于公司工厂扩张的机会以及出售工厂的替代选择。】

The accuracy of these methods is, however, questionable because the value of a new technology is difficult to know in advance(particularly in highly uncertain or rapidly changing environments) and because these methods favor short-term low risk investments.

然而，这些方法的准确性是值得怀疑的，因为一项新技术的价值很难预先知道(特别是在高度不确定或快速变化的环境中)，因为这些方法倾向于短期低风险投资。

Net Present Value (NPV)

To calculate the NPV(The discounted cash inflows of a project minus the discounted cash outflows.) of a project, managers first estimate the costs of the project and the cash flows the project will yield (often under a number of different “what if” scenarios). Costs and cash flows that occur in the future must be discounted back to the current period to account for risk and the time value of money. The present value of cash inflows can then be compared to the present value of cash outflows:

为了计算项目的NPV(项目的现金流入折现减去现金流出折现)，管理人员首先估计项目的成本和项目将产生的现金流(通常在许多不同的“假设”情景下)。未来发生的成本和现金流量必须贴现回当期，以考虑风险和货币的时间价值。然后可以将现金流入的现值与现金流出的现值进行比较:

NPV = Present value of cash inflow – Present value of cash outflows

NPV =现金流入的现值-现金流出的现值

• If this value is greater than 0 (NPV>0), then the project generates wealth, given the assumptions made in calculating its costs and cash inflows. 如果该值大于0 (NPV>0)，那么在计算其成本和现金流入时所做的假设下，该项目产生了财富。

We can use the formula for calculating the present value of an annuity instead of discounting each of the cash inflows individually. This is particularly useful when cash inflows are expected for many years. The present value of C dollars per period, for *t * periods, with discount rate r is given by the following formula:

我们可以用这个公式来计算年金的现值，而不是把每笔现金流入单独折现。当预期现金流入持续多年时，这一点尤其有用。以折现率r计算，t 期，每期C美元的现值由以下公式给出:

This amount can then be compared to the initial investment. If the cash flows are expected in perpetuity (forever), then a simpler formula can be used:

然后可以将这个金额与初始投资进行比较。如果现金流是永久的(永远)预期，那么可以使用一个更简单的公式:

The present value of the costs and future cash flows can also be used to calculate the discounted payback period (that is, the time required to break even on the project using discounted cash flows). Suppose for the example above, the initial investment required was $2,000. Using the discounted cash inflows, the cumulative discounted cash flows for each year are:

成本和未来现金流的现值也可以用来计算折现回收期(即使用折现现金流实现项目收支平衡所需的时间)。假设在上面的例子中，所需的初始投资是2000美元。使用折现现金流入，每年的累计贴现现金流量为:

Internal Rate of Return(IRR)

The internal rate of return(IRR) of a project is the discount rate that makes the net present value of the investment zero.

项目的内部收益率(IRR)是使投资净现值为零的折现率。

Managers can compare this rate of return to their required return to decide if the investment should be made. Calculating the IRR of a project typically must be done by trial and error, substituting progressively higher interest rates into the NPV equation until the NPV is driven down to zero. Calculators and computers can perform this trial and error. This measure should be used cautiously, however; if cash flows arrive in varying amounts per period, there can be multiple rates of return, and typical calculators or computer programs will often simply report the first IRR that is found.

经理们可以将这个回报率与他们所需的回报率进行比较，以决定是否应该进行投资。计算一个项目的IRR通常必须通过试错来完成，将逐渐升高的利率代入NPV方程，直到NPV降至零。计算器和计算机可以进行这种试错。然而，这一措施应该谨慎使用;如果每个时期的现金流达到的金额不同，就会有多个回报率，典型的计算器或计算机程序通常会简单地报告发现的第一个内部收益率。

IRR is defined as the rate of return that equates the PV of an investment’s expected benefits(inflows) with the PV of its costs(outflows).

IRR被定义为等于投资预期收益PV(流入)与其成本PV(流出)的回报率。

• When NPV=0,IRR is the discount rate 当NPV=0时，IRR为折现率
• IRR calculation may lead to multiple solutions(when the sign of cash flows changes) 内部收益率的计算可能导致多种解决方案(当现金流量的符号发生变化时)

NPV vs IRR

Single projects case

Two projects case

NPV更好一些

Strengths and Weaknesses of DCF Methods

Strengths

• Provide concrete financial estimates 提供具体的财务估计
• Explicitly consider timing of investment and time value of money 明确考虑投资的时机和金钱的时间价值

Weaknesses

• May be deceptive; only as accurate as original estimates of cash flows. 可能具有欺骗性;只有与现金流量的原始估计一样准确。
• May fail to capture strategic importance of project 可能无法捕捉项目的战略重要性

Real Options

When a firm develops new core technologies, it is simultaneously investing in its own learning and in the development of new capabilities. Thus, development projects can create valuable future opportunities for the firm that would otherwise be unavailable. Even development projects that appear unsuccessful (as Intel’s DRAM discussed above) may prove to be very valuable when they are considered from the perspective of the options they create for the future of the firm. Some managers and scholars have begun arguing that new product development decisions should be evaluated as “real options.”

当企业开发新的核心技术时，它同时投资于自身的学习和新能力的开发。因此，发展项目可以为公司创造宝贵的未来机会，否则这些机会是无法获得的。即使是看起来不成功的开发项目(如上面讨论的英特尔DRAM)，从它们为公司未来创造的选择的角度考虑，也可能证明是非常有价值的。一些管理者和学者已经开始主张，新产品开发决策应该作为“实物期权”进行评估。

To understand real options, it is first useful to consider the financial model upon which they are based—stock options. The cost of the R&D program can be considered the price of a call option.

要理解实物期权，首先要考虑它们所基于的财务模型——股票期权。研发项目的成本可以被认为是看涨期权的价格。

【认购期权：一种购买某种资产或金融产品（如股票）的期权，以规定的价格（行权价）在规定的未来日期（或日期范围）购买。】

A call option on a stock enables an investor to purchase the right to buy the stock at a specified price (the “exercise price”) in the future. If, in the future, the stock is worth more than the exercise price, the holder of the option will typically exercise the option by buying the stock. If the stock is worth more than the exercise price plus the price paid for the original option, the option holder makes money on the deal.

If the stock is worth less than the exercise price, the option holder will typically choose not to exercise the option, allowing it to expire. In this case, the option holder loses the amount of money paid for the initial option.

If, at the time the option is exercised, the stock is worth more than the exercise price but not more than the exercise price plus the amount paid for the original option, the stockholder will typically exercise the option. Even though the stockholder loses money on the deal (some portion of the price paid for the original option), he or she loses less than if he or she allowed the option to expire (the entire price paid for the original option).

股票的认购期权使投资者能够购买未来以特定价格(“行使价”)购买该股票的权利。如果在未来，股票的价值超过行权价格，期权持有人通常会通过购买股票来行使期权。如果股票的价值高于行权价加上原期权的支付价格，则期权持有人在交易中赚钱。

如果股票价值低于行权价格，期权持有人通常会选择不行使期权，让期权到期。在这种情况下，期权持有人损失了为初始期权支付的款项。

倘于行使购股权时，股票价值高于行使价但不高于行使价加上原购股权已支付的金额，股东通常会行使购股权。即使股东在交易中赔钱(为原始期权支付的部分价格)，他或她的损失比他或她允许期权到期(为原始期权支付的全部价格)要少。

Figure 7.4 provides examples of investment decisions that can be viewed as real call options. With respect to research and development:

图7.4提供了一些投资决策的例子，这些投资决策可以看作是真实的看涨期权。关于研究和发展:

• The cost of the R&D program can be considered the price of a call option. 研发项目的成本可以被认为是看涨期权的价格。
• The cost of future investment required to capitalize on the R&D program (such as the cost of commercializing a new technology that is developed) can be considered the exercise price. 将研发计划资本化所需的未来投资成本(例如将开发的新技术商业化的成本)可以视为行权价格。
• The returns to the R&D investment are analogous to the value of a stock purchased with a call option. 研发投资的回报类似于购买带有看涨期权的股票的价值。

The Value of a Call Option

As shown in Figure 7.5, the value of a call stock option is zero as long as the price of the stock remains less than the exercise price. If the value of the stock rises above the exercise price, however, the value of the call rises with the value of the stock, dollar for dollar (thus the value of the call rises at a 45-degree angle).

如图7.5所示，只要股票价格低于行权价格，看涨股票期权的价值为零。然而，如果股票的价值高于行权价格，那么看涨期权的价值就会随着股票价值的上涨而上涨(因此看涨期权的价值以45度角上涨)。

反正就是看stock price和exercise price

Options are valuable when there is uncertainty, and because technology trajectories are uncertain, an options approach may be useful. Though there has not yet been much empirical work in the area, several authors have developed methodologies and applications of options analysis to valuing technology development investments. Also, some evidence shows that an options approach results in better technology investment decisions than a cash flow analysis approach.

当存在不确定性时，期权是有价值的，因为技术轨迹是不确定的，期权方法可能是有用的。虽然在这一领域还没有太多的实证工作，但一些作者已经开发了期权分析的方法和应用，以评估技术开发投资。此外，一些证据表明，期权方法比现金流量分析方法产生更好的技术投资决策。

Limitations of Real Options Models

Many innovation projects do not conform to the same capital market assumptions underlying option models.

许多创新项目并不符合期权模型所隐含的资本市场假设。

• May not be able to acquire option at small price: may require full investment before its known whether technology will be successful. 可能无法以较小的价格获得期权:可能需要在知道技术是否成功之前进行全部投资。
• Value of stock option is independent of call holder’s behavior, but value of R&D investment is shaped by the firm’s capabilities, complementary assets, and strategies. 股票期权的价值与认购权持有人的行为无关，而研发投资的价值则受企业能力、互补资产和战略的影响。

Require high flexibility of management

要求管理的高度灵活性

Qualitative Methods of Choosing Projects

Most new product development projects require the evaluation of a significant amount of qualitative information. Many factors in the choice of development projects are extremely difficult to quantify, or quantification could lead to misleading results.

大多数新产品开发项目需要对大量定性信息进行评估。选择发展项目的许多因素极难量化，或者量化可能导致误导性的结果。

Almost all firms utilize some form of qualitative assessment of potential projects, ranging from informal discussions to highly structured approaches.

几乎所有的公司都利用某种形式的潜在项目的定性评估，从非正式的讨论到高度结构化的方法。

Screening Questions: Assess different dimensions of the project decision

筛选问题:评估项目决策的不同维度

The Aggregate Project Planning Framework: Emphasizes balance of different types of projects and their match to resource availability, cash flow needs, etc.

综合项目规划框架:强调不同类型项目的平衡，以及它们与资源可用性、现金流需求等的匹配。

Q-Sort:ranks projects on a variety of dimensions.

Q-Sort:根据各种维度对项目进行排序。

Screening Questions

Screening Questionsare organized into categories(see below) and are used by managers(may create a list) to structure technology project investment discussions(about the potential costs and benefits).

筛选问题被组织成类别(见下文)，并被管理人员(可能创建一个列表)用于组织技术项目投资讨论(关于潜在的成本和收益)。

• Role of customer(market, use, compatibility and ease of use, distribution and pricing) 客户角色(市场、使用、兼容性和易用性、分销和定价)

  • 

• Role of capabilities(existing capabilities, competitors’ capabilities, future capabilities) 能力的角色(现有能力、竞争对手的能力、未来能力)

  • 

• Project timing and cost(timing, cost factors) 项目时间和成本(时间，成本因素)

  • 

Illustrative Factors for Project Selection

项目选择的说明性因素

Financial Factors

Marketing Factors

Personnel Factors

Administrative and Miscellaneous Factors 行政及杂项因素

Mapping the Company’s R&D Portfolio（The Aggregate Project Planning Framework）

绘制公司的研发组合（项目总体规划框架）

Many companies find it valuable to map their R&D portfolio according to levels of risk, resource commitment, and timing of cash flows. Managers can use this map to compare their desired balance of projects with their actual balance of projects. It can also help them to identify capacity constraints and better allocate resources.

许多公司发现，根据风险水平、资源承诺和现金流时间来规划研发投资组合是很有价值的。管理人员可以使用这个图来比较他们期望的项目平衡和他们实际的项目平衡。它还可以帮助他们确定能力限制并更好地分配资源。

• Advanced R&D Projects: develop cutting-edge technologies; often no immediate commercial application; take a long time to pay off (or may not pay off at all), but can position the firm to be a technological leader. 先进研发项目:开发前沿技术;通常没有立即的商业应用;需要很长时间才能获得回报(或者可能根本没有回报)，但可以使公司成为技术领导者。
• Breakthrough Projects: incorporate revolutionary new technologies into a commercial application. 突破性项目:将革命性的新技术纳入商业应用。
• Platform Projects: not revolutionary, but offer fundamental improvements over preceding generations of products. 平台项目:不是革命性的，但对前几代产品提供了根本性的改进。
• Derivative Projects: incremental improvements and variety in design features. These projects pay off the quickest, and help service the firm’s short-term cash flow needs 衍生项目:渐进式改进和设计特征的多样性。这些项目回报最快，并有助于满足公司的短期现金流需求

For example,

• A typical firm experiencing moderate growth might allocate 10 percent of its R&D budget to breakthrough innovation, 30 percent to platform projects, and 60 percent to derivative projects. 一个典型的适度增长的公司可能会将其研发预算的10%用于突破性创新，30%用于平台项目，60%用于衍生项目。
• A firm pursuing more significant growth might allocate higher percentages to breakthrough and platform projects, 追求更显著增长的公司可能会将更高的比例分配给突破性和平台项目，
• While a firm that needs to generate more short-term profit might allocate a higher percentage to derivative projects. 而需要产生更多短期利润的公司可能会将更高的比例分配给衍生项目。
• Respondents to a recent survey administered by the Product Development and Management Association indicated that roughly 8 percent of their projects were breakthrough or advanced R&D projects, 17 percent were platform projects, and 75 percent were derivative projects. 根据产品开发和管理协会最近的一项调查，受访者表示，他们的项目中大约8%是突破性或高级研发项目，17%是平台项目，75%是衍生项目。

Q-Sort

Q-sort is a simple method for ranking objects or ideas on a number of different dimensions.

q排序是一种简单的方法，用于在多个不同维度上对对象或想法进行排序。

• Ideas are put on cards. 想法被写在卡片上。
• A series of project selection criteria are presented. 提出了一系列的项目选择标准。
• For each dimension being considered, the cards are stacked in order of their performance on that dimension. 对于所考虑的每个维度，将按照它们在该维度上的表现顺序堆叠卡片。
• Several rounds of sorting and debate are used to achieve consensus about the projects. 经过几轮整理和辩论，对项目达成共识。

The Q-sort method has been used for purposes as diverse as identifying personality disorders to establishing scales of customer preferences. Individuals in a group are each given a stack of cards with an object or idea on each card. In the case of new product development, each card could identify a potential project. Then a series of project selection criteria are presented (e.g., technical feasibility, market impact, fit with strategic intent), and for each criterion, the individuals sort their cards in rank order (e.g., best fit with strategic intent) or in categories (e.g., technically feasible versus infeasible) according to that criterion. Individuals then compare their rank orderings and use these comparisons to structure a debate about the projects. After several rounds of sorting and debating, the group is expected to arrive at a consensus about the best projects.

Q-sort方法已被用于各种目的，如识别人格障碍，建立客户偏好量表。组中的每个人都得到了一叠卡片，每张卡片上都有一个物体或想法。在新产品开发的情况下，每一张卡片都可以识别一个潜在的项目。然后提出一系列项目选择标准(例如，技术可行性、市场影响、是否符合战略意图)，对于每个标准，个体根据该标准将他们的卡片按等级顺序(例如，最符合战略意图)或分类(例如，技术上可行与不可行)进行排序。然后，个人比较他们的等级排序，并使用这些比较来组织关于项目的辩论。经过几轮的筛选和辩论，团队有望就最佳项目达成共识。

Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Information

As demonstrated above, both quantitative methods and qualitative methods offer a number of benefits to managers in choosing development projects. Thus, many firms use a combination of methods to arrive at an investment decision.

如上所示，定量方法和定性方法都为管理人员选择开发项目提供了许多好处。因此，许多公司使用多种方法来做出投资决策

• For example,
  • A firm might have screening questions that require quantitative analysis in addition to qualitative responses. 一个公司可能有筛选问题，除了定性回答外，还需要定量分析
  • Firms might also use quantitative methods to estimate the cash flows anticipated from a project when balancing their R&D portfolio on a project map. 当企业在项目地图上平衡其研发组合时，也可能使用定量方法来估计项目预期的现金流量。
  • There are also valuation techniques that attempt to translate qualitative assessments into quantitative measures, such as conjoint analysis and data envelopment analysis. 还有一些评估技术试图将定性评估转化为定量措施，例如联合分析和数据包络分析。

Conjoint Analysis: a family of techniques enabling the relative importance of product attributes to be derived statistically.

联合分析:一组技术，使产品属性的相对重要性可以统计出来。

Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA): facilitates the comparison of projects using multiple criteriaand different kinds of measurement unitsbased on a linear programming.

数据包络分析(DEA):在线性规划的基础上，使用多种标准和不同类型的测量单位，便于对项目进行比较。

【数据包络分析：一种用于评估生产决策单元（如企业、部门等）相对效率的非参数线性规划方法，通过构建有效生产边界来衡量决策单元的效率。】

Scoring Models:scores and ranks projects using criteria system and quantifying mechanism.

评分模型:采用标准体系和量化机制对项目进行评分和排名。

Conjoint Analysis 联合分析

Conjoint Analysis is a family of techniques (including discrete choice, choice modeling, hierarchical choice, trade-off matrices, and pairwise comparisons) used to estimate the specific value individuals place on some attribute of a choice.

联合分析是一组技术(包括离散选择、选择建模、分层选择、权衡矩阵和两两比较)，用于估计个人对选择的某些属性的特定值。

Such as the relative value of features of a product or the relative importance of different outcomes of a development project. While individuals may find it very difficult to accurately assess the weight they put on individual attributes of a decision, conjoint analysis enables these weights to be derived statistically. Conjoint analysis enables a subjective assessment of a complex decision to be decomposed into quantitative scores of the relative importance of different criteria.

例如产品特性的相对价值或开发项目的不同结果的相对重要性。虽然个人可能会发现很难准确地评估他们给决策的个人属性赋予的权重，但联合分析使这些权重能够从统计上得到。联合分析使一个复杂决策的主观评估能够被分解成不同标准相对重要性的定量分数。

The most common use of conjoint analysis is to assess the relative importance to customers of different product attributes.

联合分析最常见的用途是评估不同产品属性对顾客的相对重要性。

Steps:

• Determine the features and levels of features. 确定特征和特征级别。
• Design virtual products with different features and prices and describe them on cards. 设计具有不同功能和价格的虚拟产品，并在卡片上进行描述。
• Individuals rate each in terms of desirability or rank them. 每个人都根据自己的喜好给他们打分或排序。
• Multiple regression then used to assess the degree to which an attribute influences rating. 然后使用多元回归来评估属性影响评级的程度。
• These weights in providing different features. 这些权重在于提供不同的功能。

Conjoint analysis例子：Courtyard by Marriott

Marriot used conjoint analysis to help it develop a mid-price hotel line.

万豪利用联合分析来开发中档价位的酒店产品线。

• First used focus groups to identify customer segments and attributes they cared about in a hotel. 首先使用焦点小组来确定他们在酒店中关心的客户细分和属性。
• Then created potential hotel profiles that varied on these features and asked participants to rate the profiles. 然后创建了在这些特征上有所不同的潜在酒店简介，并要求参与者对这些简介进行评分。
• Regression identified which features were valued most. 回归识别哪些特征是最有价值的。
• Based on the results, Marriott developed Courtyard concept: relatively small hotels(about 150 rooms) with limited amenities, small restaurants and meeting rooms, enclosed courtyards, high-security features, well-landscaped exteriors, and rates of $40-$60 a night. 根据调查结果，万豪提出了四合院的概念:相对较小的酒店(约150间客房)，设施有限，餐厅和会议室较小，庭院封闭，安全性高，外部景观优美，房价在每晚40- 60美元之间。
• By the end of 2002, there were 533 Courtyard hotels (508 of those were in the United States), and their average occupancy rate of 72 percent was well above the industry average. 到2002年底，共有533家万怡酒店(其中508家在美国)，它们72%的平均入住率远高于行业平均水平。

Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) 数据包络分析

Data envelopment analysis (DEA)is a method of assessing a potential project (or other decision) using multiple criteria that may have different kinds of measurement units.

数据包络分析(DEA)是一种使用多个标准评估潜在项目(或其他决策)的方法，这些标准可能具有不同类型的度量单位。

• For instance, for a particular set of potential projects, a firm might have cash flow estimates, a ranking of the project’s fit with existing competencies, a ranking of the project’s potential for building desired future competencies, a score for its technical feasibility, and a score for its customer desirability. Each of these measures captures something that is qualitatively different, and the numbers assigned to them are based on different units of measure. 例如，对于一组特定的潜在项目，公司可能有现金流估计，项目与现有能力的匹配度排名，项目构建期望的未来能力的潜力排名，其技术可行性得分，以及其客户需求得分。这些度量中的每一个都捕获了一些在质量上不同的东西，分配给它们的数字基于不同的度量单位。

While the first measure is in dollars and is a nearly continuous measure

第一个衡量标准是美元，而且几乎是连续的衡量标准

The second two measures are rank orders and thus are categorical measures with little information about what the difference is between one level of rank and another.

第二个测量是等级顺序，因此是分类测量，几乎没有关于一个等级和另一个等级之间差异的信息。

The last two measures are scores that might be based on a ranking system or scaling system (e.g., a Likert measure that goes from one to five or seven. Likert Scale).

最后两个指标可能是基于排名系统或缩放系统(例如，李克特测量从1到5或7)的分数。李克特量表)。

Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) uses linear programming to combine measures of projects based on different units (e.g., rank vs. dollars) into an efficiency frontier.

数据包络分析(DEA)使用线性规划将基于不同单位(例如，等级与美元)的项目度量组合成一个效率边界。

• Projects can be ranked by assessingtheir distance from efficiency frontier. 项目可以通过评估它们与效率边界的距离来排名。
  • Efficiency frontier: the range of hypothetical configurations that optimize a combination of features. 效率边界:优化特征组合的假设配置范围。
• As with other quantitative methods, DEA results only as good as the data utilized; managers must be careful in their choice of measures and their accuracy. 与其他定量方法一样，DEA的结果与所使用的数据一样好;管理人员必须谨慎选择衡量标准及其准确性。

The biggest advantage of DEA is that it enables comparisons of projects using multiple kinds of measures.

DEA的最大优点是它可以使用多种度量方法对项目进行比较。

However, just as with several of the methods described previously, the results of DEA are only as good as the data utilized. Managers bear the responsibility of determining which measures are most important to include and of ensuring that the measures are accurate

然而，正如前面描述的几种方法一样，DEA的结果仅与所使用的数据一样好。管理人员有责任确定哪些度量是最重要的，并确保这些度量是准确的

DEA Example

The Advanced Technologies Group of Bell Laboratories chose to evaluate projects in terms of three measures: discounted cash flows (output) the investment required (input), and desirability from the perspective of intellectual property and product market benefits.

贝尔实验室的先进技术小组选择从三个方面来评估项目:贴现现金流(产出)、所需投资(投入)和从知识产权和产品市场利益的角度来看的可取性。

Scoring Models

1. Identify relevant criteria. For most project selection situations, 5 to 10 criteria are sufficient. 确定相关标准。对于大多数项目选择情况，5到10个标准就足够了。
2. Define a range for each criterion. The range could be from “Very Good” to “Very Bad” for qualitative criteria, and from the highest measurable value to the lowest for quantitative criteria, such as return on investment (ROI). 为每个标准定义一个范围。对于定性标准，范围可以从“非常好”到“非常差”，对于定量标准，例如投资回报(ROI)，范围可以从最高可测量值到最低可测量值。
3. Divide the range of each criterion into intervals and assign a numerical value to each Interval. The recommended number of intervals is between 5 and 9. 将每个标准的范围划分为多个区间，并为每个区间指定一个数值。建议间隔次数在5到9之间。
4. Rank the criteria in the order of their relative importance and assign weights to them. 将这些标准按其相对重要性排序，并为其分配权重。
5. Evaluate each project, one at a time, according to the criteria by indicating the interval to which it belongs. 评估每个项目，一次一个，根据标准，通过指示它所属的间隔。
6. Calculate the product of the criterion weights and the criterion intervals. The sum of these products is the project score. 计算准则权重与准则区间的乘积。这些产品的总和就是项目得分。
7. Repeat step 5 and step 6 for each project. 对每个项目重复步骤5和步骤6。
8. Rank the projects according to their scores. 根据他们的分数对项目进行排名。

Possible relevant Project Criteria

Techinical aspects 技术方面

Utilization Aspects 利用方面

Weighted Factor Scoring Model

When Numeric Weights Reflecting the Relative Importance of Each Individual Factor are Added, We have a Weighted Factor Scoring Model. In General, It Takes the Form

当数值权重反映了每个单独因素的相对重要性，我们有一个加权因素评分模型。一般来说，它采用以下形式

• The Weights w_jmay be generated by any technique that is acceptable to the organization’s policy makers. (The Delphi Technique is both effective and acceptable.) When numeric weights have been generated, it is helpful (but not necessary) to scale the weights so that 权重w_j可以由组织的政策制定者所接受的任何技术生成。(德尔菲技术既有效又可接受。)当生成数值权重时，缩放权重是有帮助的(但不是必需的)，以便
  • 

Advantages and Disadvantages of Scoring Models

Advantages

• Allow for multiple criteria 允许使用多个标准
• Easy to use and understand 易于使用和理解
• Direct reflection of managerial policy 直接反映管理政策
• Weighted models reflect importance 加权模型反映重要性
• Allow for easy sensitivity analysis 允许容易的敏感性分析

Disadvantages

• Output is strictly relative, not representative of ‘utility’ 产出是严格相对的，不代表“效用”。
• Assume linearity and independent 假设线性且独立
• Non-weighted models unrealistically assume all variables are equally important 非加权模型不切实际地假设所有变量都同等重要

Method/Model Selection（的因素）

Realism 现实性

Capability 能力

Flexibility 灵活性

Ease of Use 易用性

Data Requirements 数据需求

Cost

C7 Summary【复习省流版】

Firms often use a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods to evaluate which projects should be funded. Though some methods assume that all valuable projects will be funded, resources are typically constrained and firms must use capital rationing.

公司经常使用定量和定性相结合的方法来评估哪些项目应该得到资助。尽管一些方法假设所有有价值的项目都将得到资助，但资源通常是有限的，公司必须使用资本配给。

The most commonly used quantitative methods of evaluating projects are discounted cash flow methods such as net present value (NPV) or internal rate of return (IRR). While both methods enable the firm to create concrete estimates of returns of a project and account for the time value of money, the results are only as good as the cash flow estimates used in the analysis (which are often unreliable). Both methods also tend to heavily discount long-term or risky projects, and can undervalue projects that have strategic implications that are not well reflected by cash flow estimates.

评估项目最常用的量化方法是现金流折现法，如净现值法(NPV)或内部收益率法(IRR)。虽然这两种方法都能让公司对项目的回报做出具体的估计，并说明货币的时间价值，但其结果只能与分析中使用的现金流估计一样好(通常不可靠)。这两种方法都倾向于严重贴现长期或有风险的项目，并可能低估具有战略意义的项目的价值，这些项目没有很好地反映在现金流估计中。

Some firms now use a real options approach to assessing projects. Real options better account for the long-run strategic implications of a project. Unfortunately, many new product development investment decisions do not conform to the assumptions inherent in an options valuation approach.

一些公司现在使用实物期权方法来评估项目。实物期权更能说明项目的长期战略意义。不幸的是，许多新产品开发投资决策并不符合期权估值方法中固有的假设。

One commonly used qualitative method of assessing development projects is to subject the project to a series of screening questions that consider the project from multiple angles. These questions may be used merely to structure the discussion of a project or to create rating scales that are then utilized in an approach that combines qualitative and quantitative assessment.

评估开发项目的一种常用的定性方法是从多个角度考虑项目的一系列筛选问题。这些问题可能仅仅用于组织对项目的讨论，或者创建等级量表，然后在结合定性和定量评估的方法中使用。

A company’s portfolio of projects typically includes projects of different types (e.g., advanced R&D, breakthrough, platform, and derivative projects) that have different resource requirements and different rates of return. Companies can use a project map to assess what their balance of projects is (or should be) and allocate resources accordingly.

公司的项目组合通常包括不同类型的项目(如先进研发、突破、平台、衍生项目)，这些项目具有不同的资源需求和不同的回报率。公司可以使用项目图来评估他们的项目平衡是什么(或应该是什么)，并相应地分配资源。

Q-sort is a qualitative method of assessing projects whereby individuals rank each project under consideration according to a series of criteria. Q-sort is most commonly used to provide a format for discussion and debate.

q排序是一种评估项目的定性方法，个人根据一系列标准对所考虑的每个项目进行排名。q排序最常用于提供讨论和辩论的格式。

Conjoint analysis is a method of converting qualitative assessments of a choice into quantitative weights of the different criteria underlying the choice. It is most often used for assessing how customers value different product attributes.

联合分析是一种将选择的定性评估转换为选择的不同标准的定量权重的方法。它最常用于评估顾客对不同产品属性的评价。

Data envelopment analysis (DEA) is another method that combines qualitative and quantitative measures. DEA enables projects that have multiple criteria in different measurement units to be ranked by comparing them to a hypothetical efficiency frontier.

数据包络分析(DEA)是另一种定性与定量相结合的方法。DEA允许在不同度量单位中具有多个标准的项目通过将它们与假设的效率边界进行比较来进行排名。

接下来我们讨论的是合作的问题

Overview

Collaboration can often enable firms to achieve more, at a faster rate, and with less cost or risk than they can achieve alone. However, collaboration also often entails relinquishing some degree of control over development and some share of the expected rewards of innovation, plus it can expose the firm to risk of malfeasance by its partner(s).

与单打独斗相比，合作通常能使企业以更快的速度、更低的成本或风险取得更多的成就。然而，合作也经常需要放弃对开发的一定程度的控制和对创新预期回报的一些分享，而且它可能使公司面临其合作伙伴渎职的风险。

Reasons for Going Solo

A firm might choose to engage in solo development of a project for a number of reasons.

公司可能会出于多种原因选择单独开发一个项目。

1. Availability of Capabilities 功能的可用性
2. Protecting Proprietary Technologies 保护专有技术
3. Controlling Technology Development and Use 控制技术开发和使用
4. Building and Renewing Capabilities 建立和更新能力

Advantages of Collaborating

Collaborating on development projects can offer a firm a number of advantages.

在开发项目上的合作可以为公司提供许多优势。

• First, collaborating can enable a firm to obtain necessary skills or resources more quickly than developing them in-house. 首先，与内部开发相比，合作可以使公司更快地获得必要的技能或资源。
• Second,obtaining some of the necessary capabilities or resources from a partner rather than building them in-house can help a firm reduce its asset commitment and enhance its flexibility. 其次，从合作伙伴那里获得一些必要的能力或资源，而不是在内部建立这些能力或资源，可以帮助公司减少其资产承诺，增强其灵活性。
• Third, collaboration with partners can be an important source of learning for the firm. 第三，与合作伙伴的合作可以成为公司学习的重要来源。
• Fourth,one primary reason firms collaborate on a development project is to share the costs and risks of the project. 第四，企业在开发项目上合作的一个主要原因是分担项目的成本和风险。
• Finally, firms may also collaborate on a development project when such collaboration would facilitate the creation of a shared standard. 最后，企业也可以在一个开发项目上进行合作，这种合作将促进共享标准的创建。

Joint venture: A partnership between two or more firms involving a significant equity stake by the partners and often resulting in the creation of a new business entity.

合资企业:两家或多家公司之间的合伙关系，合伙人持有大量股权，通常导致新企业实体的成立。

Reasons of Failure of Collaboration

• Conflicting objectives 不一致目标：指在实现一个目标时，与之相冲突或矛盾的另一个目标。
• Partner malfeasance 合作伙伴渎职
• Relationships between partners 伴侣之间的关系
• Cultural Diversity 文化多样性：指一个地区或社会中存在着多种不同的文化、价值观和传统。
• Lack of trust 信任缺失
• Personal conflicts 个人冲突
• Unrealistic expects 不切实际的期望

Conditions for Success of Collaboration

• Serious attitude: partners place importance on the collaboration 态度认真:合作伙伴重视合作
• A strong advocate 坚定的拥护者
• Trust each other 互相信任
• Well-defined objectives and plan 明确的目标和计划
• Good communications 良好的沟通
• Strictly follow the arrangement 严格遵守安排
• Share the rewards 分享奖励

Types of Collaborative Arrangements

Potential Partners

• Suppliers
• Customers
• Competitors
• Complementors 互补公司：销售与其他公司的产品或服务相辅相成的产品或服务的公司。
• Organizations that offer similar products in different markets or offer different products in similar markets 在不同市场上提供类似产品的组织或在类似市场上提供不同产品的组织
• Non-profit organizations 非营利组织：指不以盈利为目的的组织，通常为社会公益、慈善、教育、科研等领域的组织。
• Government organizations
• Universities
• or others.

Collaborating Areas

Firms may choose to collaborate in the areas of:

• Manufacturing (e.g. Boeing 787) 制造业(如波音787)
• Services (e.g. the third-party logistics) 服务(如第三方物流)
• Marketing (e.g. distribution agencies) 市场推广(如分销机构)
• Technology-based objectives (e.g. technological alliances) 以技术为基础的目标(如技术联盟)

In North America, as many as 23 percent of all alliances are for research and development activities, compared to 14 percent in Western Europe and 12 percent in Asia.

在北美，多达23%的联盟用于研发活动，而西欧为14%，亚洲为12%。

Strategic Alliance 战略联盟

[战略联盟：组织或国家之间的正式安排，共同合作以实现某个目标。]

Firms may use strategic alliances to access a critical capability that is not possessed in-house or to more fully exploit their own capabilities by leveraging them in another firm’s development efforts.

公司可能会利用战略联盟来获得内部不具备的关键能力，或者通过在另一家公司的开发工作中利用它们来更充分地利用自己的能力。

Yves Doz and Gary Hamel(1997) argue that it is useful to categorize a firm’s alliance strategy along two dimensions.

Yves Doz和Gary Hamel(1997)认为，沿着两个维度对企业的联盟战略进行分类是有用的。

• The first dimension is the degree to which alliances practice capability complementation versus capability transfer. 第一个维度是联盟实践能力互补与能力转移的程度。

• The second dimension is whether the firm manages each alliance individually or manages a collective network of alliances (see Figure 8.2). 第二个维度是企业是单独管理每个联盟还是管理一个联盟的集体网络(见图8.2)。

• 

  • In quadrant A are firms that forge an individual alliance to combine complementary technologies or skills needed for a project. 在象限A中，公司建立了一个单独的联盟，将项目所需的互补技术或技能结合起来。
  • In quadrant B are firms that use a network of alliances to combine complementary skills and resources. 象限B是使用联盟网络来整合互补技能和资源的公司。
  • In quadrant C are firms that use individual alliances to transfer capabilities between them. 象限C是使用个体联盟在它们之间转移能力的公司。
  • In quadrant D are firms that use a network of alliances to exchange capabilities and jointly develop new capabilities. 象限D是使用联盟网络交换能力并共同开发新能力的公司。

Firms with different capabilities necessary for developing a new technology or penetrating a new market might form alliances to pool their resources so that collectively they can develop the product or market faster or less expensively.

拥有开发新技术或打入新市场所需的不同能力的公司可能会结成联盟，汇集资源，以便共同更快、更便宜地开发产品或市场。

Even firms that have similar capabilities may collaborate in their development activities in order to share the risk of a venture or to speed up market development and penetration.

即使是具有类似能力的公司也可能在其开发活动中进行合作，以便分担风险或加速市场开发和渗透。

Large firms might form alliances with small firms in order to take a limited stake in the smaller firm’s development efforts, while small firms might form alliances with large firms to tap the larger firm’s greater capital resources, distribution and marketing capabilities, or credibility.

大公司可能与小公司结成联盟，以便在小公司的发展努力中获得有限的股份，而小公司可能与大公司结成联盟，以利用大公司更多的资本资源、分销和营销能力或信誉。

• For example, many large pharmaceutical firms have allied with small biotechnology firms for their mutual benefit: The pharmaceutical firms gain access to the drug discoveries of the biotechnology companies, and the biotechnology companies gain access to the capital resources, manufacturing, and distribution capabilities of the pharmaceutical firms. 例如，许多大型制药公司为了共同利益与小型生物技术公司结盟:制药公司可以获得生物技术公司的药物发现，而生物技术公司可以获得制药公司的资本资源、制造和分销能力。

Alliances can enhance a firm’s overall level of flexibility.

联盟可以提高公司的整体灵活性。

Through an alliance, firms can establish a limited stake in a venture while maintaining the flexibility to either increase their commitment later or shift these resources to another opportunity. Firms can use alliances to gain an early window on emerging opportunities that they may want to commit to more fully in the future. Alliances also enable a firm to rapidly adjust the type and scale of capabilities the firm can access, which can be very valuable in rapidly changing markets.

通过联盟，公司可以在合资企业中建立有限的股份，同时保持灵活性，以便以后增加承诺或将这些资源转移到另一个机会。公司可以利用联盟来获得新兴机会的早期窗口，它们可能希望在未来更充分地投入这些机会。联盟还使公司能够快速调整公司可以获得的能力的类型和规模，这在快速变化的市场中非常有价值。

Alliances are also used to enable partners to learn from each other and develop new competencies.

联盟还用于使合作伙伴能够相互学习并开发新的能力。

Alliance partners may hope to transfer knowledge between the firms or to combine their skills and resources to jointly create new knowledge. However, alliance relationships often lack the shared language, routines, and coordination that facilitate the transfer of knowledge—particularly the complex and tacit knowledge that is most likely to lead to sustainable competitive advantages.To use alliances for learning requires a serious commitment of resources, such as a pool of dedicated people willing to travel between the home firm and partner firm, test-bed facilities, and active procedures for internalizing what has been learned.

联盟伙伴可能希望在企业之间转移知识，或将他们的技能和资源结合起来，共同创造新的知识。然而，联盟关系往往缺乏促进知识转移的共享语言、惯例和协调，特别是最可能导致可持续竞争优势的复杂和隐性知识。利用联盟进行学习需要大量的资源投入，比如愿意在母国公司和合作伙伴公司之间流动的专职人员、试验台设施，以及内化所学知识的积极程序。

Capability complementation: Combining (“pooling”) the capabilities and other resources of partner firms, but not necessarily transferring those resources between the partners.

能力互补:结合(“汇集”)合作伙伴公司的能力和其他资源，但不一定在合作伙伴之间转移这些资源。

Capability transfer: Exchange of capabilities across firms in such a manner that partners can internalize the capabilities and use them independently of the particular development project.

能力转移:以这样一种方式在公司之间交换能力，合作伙伴可以内化这些能力，并独立于特定的开发项目使用它们。

Licensing 许可

Licensing is a contractual arrangement whereby one organization or individual (the licensee) obtains the rights to use the proprietary technology (or trademark, copyright, etc.) of another organization or individual (the licensor).Licensing enables a firm to rapidly acquire a technology (or other resource or capability) it does not possess.

许可是一种合同安排，一个组织或个人(被许可方)获得使用另一个组织或个人(许可方)的专有技术(或商标、版权等)的权利。许可使公司能够迅速获得它所不具备的技术(或其他资源或能力)。

Licensor can penetrate a wider range of markets than it could on its own.

许可方可以比自己打入更广泛的市场。

Licensing enables a firm to rapidly acquire a technology (or other resource or capability) it does not possess.

许可使公司能够迅速获得它所不具备的技术(或其他资源或能力)。

Outsourcing 外包

Firms that develop new technological innovations do not always possess the competencies, facilities, or scale to perform all the value-chain activities for the new innovation effectively or efficiently. Such firms might outsource activities to other firms.

开发新技术创新的公司并不总是拥有能力、设施或规模，以有效或高效地执行新创新的所有价值链活动。这些公司可能会将活动外包给其他公司。

Outsourcing: An organization (or individual) procures services or products from another rather than producing them in-house.

外包:一个组织(或个人)从另一个组织采购服务或产品，而不是在内部生产。

Potential loss of important learning opportunities needed to develop innovations in the future.

可能会失去未来发展创新所需的重要学习机会。

Potentially high transaction costs, and the risk that a contract manufacturer will appropriate proprietary technology.

潜在的高交易成本，以及合同制造商盗用专有技术的风险。

Contract manufacturing is one of the most common forms of outsourcing.

合同制造是最常见的外包形式之一。

Collective Research Organizations

In some industries, multiple organizations have established cooperative research and development organizations such as the Semiconductor Research Corporation or the American Iron and Steel Institute.

在一些行业，多个组织已经建立了合作研究和开发组织，如半导体研究公司或美国钢铁协会。

Collective research organizations may take a number of forms, including trade associations, university-based centers, or private research corporations. Many of these organizations are formed through government or industry association initiatives.

集体研究组织可以采取多种形式，包括行业协会、大学中心或私人研究公司。这些组织中有许多是由政府或行业协会倡议成立的。

Choosing a Mode of Collaboration

Summary of Trade-offs between Different Modes of Development 不同发展模式的权衡总结【对前面的知识的一些小总结】

Pro and Con – Solo Internal Development 个人内部发展

Solo internal development:

• Relatively slow and expensive 相对缓慢和昂贵
• Offers little-to-no potential for accessing another firm’s competencies 几乎没有机会获得其他公司的能力
• Enables a firm to retain controlover how the technology is developed and used 使公司能够保持对技术开发和使用的控制
• Most likely to contribute the leveraging of existing competenciesand the development of new ones. 最有可能对现有能力和新能力的发展做出贡献。

Solo internal development is appropriate when a firm has strong competencies related to the new technology, access to capital, and is not under great time pressure.

当公司拥有与新技术相关的强大能力，获得资金，并且没有很大的时间压力时，单独的内部开发是合适的。

Pro and Con – Strategic Alliances

Strategic Alliances enables firms to:

• Quickly gain access to another firm’s technology 迅速获得另一家公司的技术
• Broader markets 更广泛的市场
• Leverage existing competencies 利用现有的能力
• Develop new competencies depending on the structure of the alliance. 根据联盟的结构发展新的能力。

Because strategic alliances can take many forms, the speed, cost and degree of control they offer varies considerably.

由于战略联盟可以采取多种形式，因此它们提供的速度、成本和控制程度差别很大。

Pro and Con – Joint Ventures 合资公司

Joint Ventures:

• Offer a slight time advantage over solo development efforts 与单独开发工作相比，提供一点时间优势
• Offer cost sharing, the potential for leveraging existing competencies and developing new competencies 提供成本分担，利用现有能力和开发新能力的潜力
• Offer the opportunity to access partners’ competencies. 提供接触合作伙伴能力的机会。

Joint ventures are particularly desirable when a firm places value on access to other firms’ competencies.

当一家公司重视获得其他公司的能力时，合资企业尤其可取。

Pro and Con – Licensing

Licensing in technology:

• A fast and moderately priced way to access new technology 一种获取新技术的快速且价格适中的方式
• Has the potential to leverage the firm’s existing competencies, develop new competencies and provide access to another firm’s existing competencies. 有潜力利用公司现有的能力，发展新的能力，并提供访问其他公司的现有能力。
• Offers limited use of a technology and a low degree of control. 提供有限的技术使用和低程度的控制。

Licensing out technology:

• Offers a fast and low costway of expanding the use of a technology into new products or markets. 提供一种快速、低成本的方法，将一项技术扩展到新产品或市场。
• Leverages the firm’s existing competencies and can enable it to access other firm’s competencies 利用公司现有的能力，并使其能够获得其他公司的能力
• Offers little opportunity for development of new competencies. 提供很少的发展新能力的机会。

Pro and Con – Outsourcing

Outsourcing:

• Affords rapid access to another firm’s expertise 能够迅速获得另一家公司的专业知识
• Afford slower costs 负担较慢的成本
• Allows a firm to focus on activities providing the greatest return. 允许公司专注于提供最大回报的活动。
• Provides little opportunity to build new competencies. 几乎没有机会培养新的能力。

Outsourcing might be appropriate for activities that not central, activities that would cause the firm to give up crucial flexibility, and activities in which the firm is at a cost or quality disadvantage.

外包可能适合于非核心活动，会导致公司放弃关键灵活性的活动，以及公司处于成本或质量劣势的活动。

When there are many potential outsourcees providing similar products or services, the outsourcing could be a simple buyer-seller relationship.

当有许多潜在的外包商提供类似的产品或服务时，外包可能是一个简单的买卖关系。

When the outsourcee provides differentiated products or services, the outsourcing could have more strategic significance.

当被外包方提供差异化的产品或服务时，外包就更具有战略意义。

Pro and Con – Collective Research Organization 集体研究组织

Collective Research Organization

• A form of long-term commitment in which costs and degree of control can varysignificantly. 长期承诺的一种形式，其成本和控制程度可能差别很大。
• Often enable a firm to leverage and build upon its existing competencies as well as to learn from other participating organizations. 通常使公司能够利用和建立其现有的能力，并向其他参与组织学习。
• Particularly useful in industries with complex technologies and/or industries that requireconsiderable investments in basic science. 在技术复杂的行业和/或需要大量基础科学投资的行业尤其有用。

Partner Selection

The success of collaborations will depend in large part on the partners chosen. A number of factors can influence how well suited partners are to each other, including their relative size and strength, the complementarity of their resources, the alignment of their objectives, and the similarity of their values and culture.

合作的成功在很大程度上取决于所选择的合作伙伴。有许多因素可以影响合作伙伴之间的相互适合程度，包括它们的相对规模和实力、资源的互补性、目标的一致性以及它们的价值观和文化的相似性。

These factors can be boiled down to two dimensions:

这些因素可以归结为两个维度:

• resource fit 资源契合
  • Resource fit refers to the degree to which potential partners have resources that can be effectively integrated into a strategy that creates value. Such resources may be either complementary or supplementary. Most collaborations are motivated by the need to access resources the firm does not possess; such collaborations are based on the combination of complementary resources. 资源匹配指的是潜在合作伙伴拥有的资源能够有效地整合到创造价值的战略中的程度。这种资源可以是补充的，也可以是补充的。大多数合作的动机是需要获得公司不拥有的资源;这种合作以互补资源的结合为基础。
• strategic fit 战略契合：指两家公司在合并中的适合程度。
  • Strategic fit refers to the degree to which partners have compatible objectives and styles. The objectives of the partners need not be the same as long as the objectives can be achieved without harming the alliance or the partners. Not knowing a partner’s true objectives or forging an alliance with a partner with incompatible objectives can result in conflict, wasted resources, and forfeited opportunities. 战略契合指的是合作伙伴的目标和风格兼容的程度。合作伙伴的目标不必相同，只要目标可以在不损害联盟或合作伙伴的情况下实现。不了解合作伙伴的真正目标或与目标不相容的合作伙伴结盟可能导致冲突、资源浪费和丧失机会。

Impact on Opportunities and Threats in the External Environment 外部环境对机会和威胁的影响

Assessing the collaboration’s impact on the firm’s opportunities and threats includes asking such questions as:

评估合作对公司机遇和威胁的影响，包括问以下问题:

• How would the collaboration change the bargaining power of customers or suppliers? 合作将如何改变客户或供应商的议价能力?
• Would the collaboration impact the threat of entry? For example, is the partner likely to become a new competitor? Does the partnership raise barriers to entry for other potential entrants? 这种合作会影响进入的威胁吗?例如，合作伙伴是否有可能成为新的竞争对手?这种合作关系是否增加了其他潜在进入者的进入壁垒?
• Would the collaboration impact the firm’s position vis-à-vis its rivals? 这种合作会影响该公司相对于竞争对手的地位吗?
• Would the collaboration influence the availability of complementary goods or the threat of substitutes? 合作是否会影响互补产品的供应或替代品的威胁?

Impact on Internal Strengths and Weaknesses 对内部优势和劣势的影响

Assessing the collaboration’s impact on the firm’s strengths and weaknesses includes asking such questions as:

评估合作对公司优势和劣势的影响包括问以下问题:

• How would the collaboration leverage or enhance the firm’s strengths? Does the collaboration put any of those strengths at risk? 合作将如何利用或增强公司的优势?合作是否会危及这些优势?
• How would the collaboration help the firm overcome its weaknesses? 这种合作将如何帮助公司克服其弱点?
• Is the collaboration likely to yield a position of competitive advantage that is difficult for competitors to imitate? Is such a competitive advantage achievable without collaborating? 这种合作是否可能产生竞争优势，使竞争对手难以模仿?没有合作，这样的竞争优势能实现吗?
• Would the collaboration leverage or enhance the firm’s core capabilities? 这种合作是否会利用或增强公司的核心能力?
• Is the collaboration likely to impact the firm’s financial strengths or weaknesses? 这种合作是否会影响公司的财务优势或劣势?

Impact on Strategic Direction 对战略方向的影响

Assessing the fit of the collaboration with the firm’s strategic direction includes asking such questions as:

评估合作与公司战略方向的契合度包括问以下问题:

• How does this collaboration fit with the firm’s statement of strategic intent? 这种合作如何符合公司的战略意图?
• Is the collaboration likely to help the firm close any resource or technology gap between where it is now and where it would like to be? 这种合作是否有可能帮助公司缩小现有和未来之间的资源或技术差距?
• Are the objectives of the collaboration likely to change over time? How are such changes likely to be compatible or incompatible with the firm’s strategic direction? 合作的目标可能会随着时间的推移而改变吗?这些变化如何可能与公司的战略方向相容或不相容?

对Partner Selection的brief summary

Resource fit: How well does the potential partner fit the resource needs of the project? Are resources complementary or supplementary?

资源匹配度:潜在的合作伙伴在多大程度上适合项目的资源需求?资源是互补的还是互补的?

Strategic fit: Does the potential partner have compatible objectives and styles?

战略契合度:潜在合作伙伴的目标和风格是否一致?

Impact on External Opportunities and Threats: How would collaboration impact bargaining power of customers and suppliers, degree of rivalry, threat of entry or substitutes?

对外部机会和威胁的影响:合作将如何影响客户和供应商的议价能力、竞争程度、进入或替代品的威胁?

Impact on Internal Strengths and Weaknesses: Would collaboration enhance firm’s strengths? Overcome its weaknesses? Create a competitive advantage? SWOT?

对内部优势和劣势的影响:合作会增强公司的优势吗?克服它的弱点?创造竞争优势?SWOT?

Impact on Strategic Direction: Would the collaboration help the firm achieve its strategic intent?

对战略方向的影响:合作是否有助于公司实现其战略意图?

Partner Monitoring and Governance 合作伙伴监控和治理

Successful collaboration agreements typically have clear, yet flexible, monitoring and governance mechanisms. Not surprisingly, the more resources put at risk by the collaboration (for example, the greater the upfront investment or the more valuable the intellectual property contributed to the collaboration), the more governance structure partner firms are likely to impose on the relationship.

成功的协作协议通常具有清晰而灵活的监视和治理机制。不足为奇的是，合作中面临风险的资源越多(例如，前期投资越多，或者对合作贡献的知识产权越有价值)，合作伙伴公司可能对这种关系施加的治理结构就越多。

There are three main types of governance mechanisms organizations use to manage their collaborative relationships:

组织用于管理其协作关系的治理机制有三种主要类型:

• alliance contracts 联盟合约
• equity ownership 股权拥有：指个人或公司对某企业的股份拥有权，通常表示投资者在公司中的所有权和控制权。
• relational governance. 关系控制

接下来我们讨论如何保护创新

Appropriability 独占性

The degree to which a firm is able to capture the rents from its innovation.

企业能够从其创新中获取租金的程度。

Appropriability is determined by how easily or quickly competitors can imitate the innovation.

独占性取决于竞争对手模仿创新的容易程度和速度。

The ease with which competitors can imitate the innovation is, in turn, a function of both the nature of the technology itself and the strength of the mechanisms used to protect the innovation.

反过来，竞争对手模仿创新的难易程度取决于技术本身的性质和用于保护创新的机制的强度。

Some innovations are inherently difficult to copy (tacit, socially complex, etc.)

有些创新天生就难以复制(隐性的、社会复杂的等等)。

Tacit knowledge 默知

【默知：通过个人经验获得的知识，而不是通过教育或书籍等途径获得的知识。】

Knowledge that cannot be readily codified or transferred in written form.

不能轻易编纂或以书面形式转移的知识。

A firm’s unique prior experience or talent pool may give it a foundation of technical know-how that its competitors do not possess.

一家公司之前独特的经验或人才库可能会给它提供竞争对手所不具备的技术知识基础。

Socially complex Knowledge 社会复杂知识

Knowledge that arises from the interaction of multiple individuals.

从多个个体的互动中产生的知识。

Patents, Trademarks and Copyrights

【接下来的一部分都是知识产权基础的内容，甚至那门课的更详细，可以简单回去翻看一下】

While patents, copyrights, and trademarks are all ways of protecting intellectual property, they are each designed to protect different things.

虽然专利、版权和商标都是保护知识产权的方式，但它们各自的目的是保护不同的东西。

• A patent protects an invention. 专利保护发明。
  • A property right protecting a process, machine, manufactured item (or design for manufactured item), or variety of plant. 保护工艺、机器、制成品(或制成品的设计)或各种设备的产权。
• A trademark protects words or symbols intended to distinguish the source of a good. 商标保护用来区分商品来源的文字或符号。
  • An indicator used to distinguish the source of a good. 指示用来区分商品来源
• A copyright protects an original artistic or literary work. 版权保护原创的艺术或文学作品。
  • A property right protecting works of authorship. 保护作者作品的财产权。

Patents

In many countries, inventors can apply for patent protection for their inventions.

Patents are a property right granted by a government to exclude others from producing, using, or selling the inventionin country the patent in which the patent is issued, for a limited time.

Three types of patents:

• Utility patents protect new and useful processes, machines, manufactured items or combination of materials. 实用专利保护新的和有用的工艺、机器、制成品或材料组合。
• Design patents protect original and ornamental designs for manufactured items. 外观设计专利保护产品的原创和装饰性设计。
• Plant patents protect distinct new varieties of plants. 植物专利保护独特的植物新品种。

Patents must be useful, novel and not be obvious.

专利必须是有用的，新颖的，而不是显而易见的。

• It must produce a desirable result, solve a problem, improve on or propose a new use for an existing development or show potential of doing so.
• It must not already be patented or described in public literature, or be in public use for more than a year. 不得已经取得专利或者在公开文献中描述，或者公开使用一年以上。
• A person with experience or skill in the particular art of the patent would not be expected to achieve the same invention with a normal amount of effort. 在专利的特定技术方面具有经验或技能的人不会被期望以正常的努力实现相同的发明

Patent Law around the World

Almost every country has its own laws governing patent protection. A patent granted in one country does not provide protection in other countries. People or firms seeking patent protection in multiple countries must apply in each of the countries in accordance with those countries’ requirements.

几乎每个国家都有自己的专利保护法律。在一个国家授予的专利在其他国家不受保护。在多个国家寻求专利保护的个人或公司必须按照这些国家的要求在每个国家申请。

Countries have their own laws regarding patent protection. Some treaties seek to harmonize these laws.

各国都有自己的专利保护法律。有些条约试图协调这些法律。

• Outside the US, publication about the invention before applying for the patent will bar the right to a patent. In the US, inventors have a 1year grace period within which they can publish before applying for the patent. 在美国以外的地区，在申请专利之前公布该发明将禁止获得专利权。在美国，发明人有一年的宽限期，在此期间他们可以在申请专利之前发表。
• Many countries have a “working requirement” requiring the invention be manufactured in the country within a certain time period (often 3 years) after the patent is granted. 许多国家都有“工作要求”，要求发明在专利授予后的一定时间内(通常是3年)在该国制造。

Trademarks

Trademarks and Service Marks: a word, phrase, symbol, design, or other indicator that is used to distinguish the source of goods form one party from goods of another (e.g., Nike “swoosh” symbol)

商标和服务标志:用于将一方的商品来源与另一方的商品区分开来的单词、短语、符号、设计或其他标志(例如，Nike的“嗖”标志)。

• Rights to trademark are established in legitimate use of mark; do not require registration. 商标权是在商标的合法使用中确立的;不需要注册。
• However, marks must be registered before suit can be brought over use of the mark. 但是，商标必须先注册，才能对商标的使用提起诉讼。
• Registration can also be used to establish international rights over trademark. 注册也可以用来确立商标的国际权利。

Two treaties simplify registration of trademarks in multiple countries: Madrid Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Marks , and the Madrid Protocol . Countries that adhere to either or both are in Madrid Union (70 members)

有两个条约简化了商标在多个国家的注册:《商标国际注册马德里协定》和《马德里议定书》。加入其中一项或两项的国家是马德里联盟(70个成员)。

Copyrights

Copyright: a form of protection granted to works of authorship.

版权:授予作者作品的一种保护形式。

• Copyright prohibits others from: 版权禁止他人:
  • Reproducing the work in copies or phonorecords 以复制品或唱片的形式复制作品的
  • Preparing derivative works based on the work 根据作品准备衍生作品
  • Distributing copies or phonorecords for sale, rental, or lease 出售、出租或出租的分发副本或唱片的
  • Performing the work publicly 公开表演作品
  • Displaying the work publicly 公开展示作品

Work that is not fixed in tangible form is not eligible.

不以有形形式固定的工作不符合条件。

Copyright is established in first legitimate use.

版权在首次合法使用时成立。

However, “doctrine of fair use” stipulates that others can typically use copyrighted material for purposes such as criticism, new reporting, teaching research, etc.

然而，“合理使用原则”规定，其他人通常可以出于批评、新报道、教学研究等目的使用受版权保护的材料。

Copyright for works created after 1978 have protection for author’s life plus 70 years.

1978年以后创作的作品，著作权保护期为作者终身加70年。

Copyright Protection around the World

Copyright law varies from country to country.

版权法因国家而异。

However, the Berne Union for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Property ，“Berne Convention”) specifies a minimum level of protection for member countries.

然而，伯尔尼保护文学和艺术财产联盟(“伯尔尼公约”)规定了成员国的最低保护水平。

Berne convention also eliminates differential rights to citizens versus foreign nationals.

伯尔尼公约还消除了公民与外国人的差别权利。

New problem: copyright protection with the contents on the Internet (the economics of piracy).

新问题:互联网内容的版权保护(盗版经济学)。

Trade Secrets

Trade Secret: information that belongs to a business that is generally unknown to others.

商业秘密:属于某一企业而一般不为他人所知的信息。

• Firm can protect proprietary product or process as trade secret without disclosing detailed information that would be required in patent. 企业可以保护专有产品或工艺作为商业秘密，而无需披露专利所要求的详细信息。
• Enables broad class of assets and activities to be protectable. 使广泛的资产和活动类别得到保护。

To be Trade Secrets

Offers a distinctive advantage to the company in the form of economic rent

以经济租金的形式为公司提供了独特的优势

Remains valuable only as long as the information remains private

只有在信息保密的情况下才有价值

The Effectiveness and Use of Protection Mechanisms 保护机制的有效性和使用

The methods used to protect innovation—and their effectiveness—vary significantly both within and across industries.

保护创新的方法及其有效性在行业内部和行业之间都有很大的不同。

• In some industries, such as pharmaceuticals, legal protection mechanisms such as patents are very effective. 在某些行业，如制药业，专利等法律保护机制非常有效。
• In other industries, such as electronics, patents and copyright provide relatively little protection because other firms can often invent around the patent without infringing on it. 在其他行业，如电子行业，专利和版权提供的保护相对较少，因为其他公司经常可以围绕专利进行发明创造，而不会侵犯它。

It is also notoriously difficult to enforce patents protecting industrial processes such as manufacturing techniques. If patents provide little protection, the firm may rely more heavily on trade secrets; however, the ability to protect trade secrets also varies with the nature of the technology and the industry context. To protect a trade secret, a firm must be able to expose its product to the public without revealing the underlying technology, but in many cases, revealing the product reveals all.

众所周知，执行保护工业过程(如制造技术)的专利也是非常困难的。如果专利提供的保护很少，公司可能会更多地依赖商业秘密;然而，保护商业秘密的能力也因技术的性质和行业背景而异。为了保护商业秘密，公司必须能够在不泄露底层技术的情况下向公众公开其产品，但在许多情况下，泄露产品就会泄露一切。

For some competitive situations, protecting a technology may not be as desirable as liberally diffusing it.

在某些竞争情况下，保护一项技术可能不如自由地传播它那么可取。

In industries characterized by increasing returns, firms sometimes choose to liberally diffuse their technologies to increase their likelihood of rising to the position of dominant design.

在以收益递增为特征的行业中，企业有时会选择自由地扩散其技术，以增加其上升到主导设计地位的可能性。

As discussed in Chapter Four, learning curve effects and network externalities can cause some industries to demonstrate increasing returns to adoption: The more a technology is adopted, the more valuable it becomes. This dynamic can lead to winner-take-all markets that create natural monopolies. A firm that controls the standard can reap monopoly rents and can exert significant architectural control over both its own industry and related industries.

正如第四章所讨论的，学习曲线效应和网络外部性可以导致一些行业表现出越来越多的采用回报:一项技术被采用得越多，它就越有价值。这种动态可能导致赢家通吃的市场，从而产生自然垄断。控制标准的公司可以获得垄断租金，并可以对自己的行业和相关行业施加重大的建筑控制。

This enviable position can be so lucrative that firms may be willing to lose money in the short term to improve their technology’s chance of rising to the position of dominant design. Thus, firms may liberally diffuse their technologies (through, for example, open source software or liberal licensing arrangements) to accelerate the technology’s proliferation and thereby jump-start the self-reinforcing feedback effect that can lead to the technology’s dominance.

这种令人羡慕的地位可能是如此有利可图，以至于公司可能愿意在短期内赔钱，以提高他们的技术上升到主导设计地位的机会。因此，公司可能会自由地传播他们的技术(例如，通过开源软件或自由许可安排)来加速技术的扩散，从而启动自我强化的反馈效应，从而导致技术的主导地位。

However, the firm often faces a dilemma: If it liberally diffuses the technology to would-be competitors, it relinquishes the opportunity to capture monopoly rents when and if the technology emerges as a dominant design.

然而，公司经常面临一个困境:如果它将技术自由地传播给潜在的竞争对手，当技术成为主导设计时，它就放弃了获得垄断租金的机会。

Furthermore, once control of a technology is relinquished, it can be very hard to regain; thus, such diffusion may result in the firm losing all hope of controlling the technology.

此外，一旦放弃对一项技术的控制，就很难重新获得;因此，这种扩散可能导致企业失去控制技术的所有希望。

Finally, liberal diffusion of the technology can result in the fragmentation of the technology platform: As different producers add improvements to the technology that make it better fit their needs, the “standard” may be split into many non-standardized versions.

最后，技术的自由扩散可能导致技术平台的分裂:随着不同的生产者对技术进行改进，使其更好地满足他们的需求，“标准”可能会分裂成许多非标准化版本。

To resolve these trade-offs, firms often adopt a strategy of partial protection for their innovations, falling somewhere on the continuum between wholly proprietary systems and wholly open systems.

为了解决这些问题，公司通常会对他们的创新采取部分保护的策略，介于完全专有系统和完全开放系统之间。

Wholly Proprietary Systems versus Wholly Open Systems

Wholly proprietary systems

完全专有系统

• Goods based on technology that is owned and vigorously protected through patents, copyrights, secrecy, or other mechanisms. Wholly proprietary technologies may be legally produced and augmented only by their developers. 以技术为基础的产品，通过专利、版权、保密或其他机制得到有力保护。完全专有的技术只能由其开发者合法生产和扩展。

Wholly open systems 完全开放系统

• Goods based on technology that is not protected and that is freely available for production or augmentation by other producers. 以不受保护的技术为基础的、可由其他生产者自由生产或改进的商品。

Wholly proprietary systems are often not compatible with the products offered by other manufacturers. Because their operation is based on protected technology, other manufacturers are often unable to develop components that may interact with the proprietary system. Proprietary systems typically provide their developers with the opportunity to appropriate rents from the technology. However, they might also be less likely to be adopted readily by customers as a result of their higher costs and the inability to mix and match components.

完全专有的系统通常与其他制造商提供的产品不兼容。因为他们的操作是基于受保护的技术，其他制造商通常无法开发可能与专有系统交互的组件。专有系统通常为开发人员提供从技术中获取租金的机会。然而，由于成本较高和无法混合和匹配组件，它们也不太可能被客户轻易采用。

Wholly open technologies may be freely accessed, augmented, and distributed by anyone. Such technologies are usually quickly commoditized and provide little appropriability of rents to their developers.

完全开放的技术可以由任何人自由地访问、增强和分发。这类技术通常很快就会商品化，而且给开发者提供的租金也很少。

Many technologies are neither wholly proprietary nor wholly open—they are partially open, utilizing varying degrees of control mechanisms to protect their technologies. It is useful to think of a control continuum that stretches from wholly proprietary to wholly open (see Figure 9.3).

许多技术既不是完全专有的，也不是完全开放的——它们是部分开放的，利用不同程度的控制机制来保护它们的技术。考虑一个从完全私有到完全开放的控制连续体是有用的(见图9.3)。

• Video game consolesare an example of technology controlled at the wholly proprietary end of the continuum. On the other hand, rights to produce games for the consoles are usually licensed to third party developers in order to generate a profusion of games. 视频游戏机是技术控制的一个例子，在这个连续体的完全专有的一端。另一方面，为主机制作游戏的权利通常被授权给第三方开发商，以便制作大量游戏。
• Licensing policies for Microsoft’s Windows are more open in that Microsoft retains all rights to augment the software, but licenses complementary goods providersin order to promote the development of such products and licenses equipment manufacturers to distribute the software with their hardware. 微软Windows的许可政策更加开放，因为微软保留了所有增强软件的权利，但为了促进此类产品的开发，授权了补充产品提供商，并授权了设备制造商与其硬件一起分发软件。
• Sun’s “Community Source” policy for Javamoves a bit further in the direction of wholly open. While Sun allows developers to augment the source code and does not collect a licensing fee, all changes to the code require approval by the “Java Community Process”, managed by Sun. This allows Sun to disseminate the technology while maintaining control over the integrity of the core platform. Sun对java的“社区源代码”政策在完全开放的方向上更进一步。虽然Sun允许开发人员扩展源代码并且不收取许可费用，但是对代码的所有更改都需要得到由Sun管理的“Java社区进程”的批准。这允许Sun在传播技术的同时保持对核心平台完整性的控制。

开放导向与封闭导向的创新战略【中文表格】

Advantages of Protection

Proprietary systems offer greater rent appropriability.

专有系统提供了更大的租金独占性。

Rents can be used to invest in further development, promotion, and distribution.

租金可以用于投资进一步的开发、推广和分销。

A sponsor of proprietary technology may offer the technology at an especially competitive price, advertise aggressively or subsidize the production of complementary goods in order to promote the technology and secure its position as the single producer of the standard.

专有技术的赞助者可以以特别具有竞争力的价格提供该技术，大力宣传或补贴生产补充产品，以促进该技术并确保其作为标准的单一生产者的地位。

Give the firm control over the evolution of the technology and complements (Architectural control: the ability of a firm to determine the structure, operation, compatibility, and development of a technology)

让公司控制技术的发展和补充(架构控制:公司决定技术的结构、操作、兼容性和开发的能力)

Advantages of Diffusion

May accrue more rapid adoptions if produced and promoted by multiple firms

如果由多家公司生产和推广，可能会获得更快的采用

Technology might be improved by other firms (though external development poses its own risks).

技术可能会被其他公司改进(尽管外部发展有其自身的风险)。

Factors Influencing Benefits of Protection vs. Diffusion

Production and marketing capabilities, and capital–if unable to produce or market the technology (and complementary goods) at sufficient volume or quality, protecting the technology may hinder its adoption.

生产和销售能力和资本——如果不能以足够的数量或质量生产或销售该技术(及其配套产品)，保护该技术可能会阻碍其采用。

Industry opposition against sole source technology–other industry members may jointly be able to exert enough pressure so that a firm will offer the technology with fewer restrictions.

行业对单一来源技术的反对——其他行业成员可能联合起来能够施加足够的压力，这样一家公司就会提供更少限制的技术。

Resources for internal development–a firm lacking in sufficient resources to invest in the technology’s functionality and ongoing improvements may not be able to compete in the market.

用于内部开发的资源——缺乏足够资源投资于技术功能和持续改进的公司可能无法在市场上竞争。

Control over fragmentation–is important when standardization and compatibility are important.

当标准化和兼容性很重要时，对片段的控制很重要。

Incentives for architectural control–are especially high when the firm is a significant producer of complementary products.

当公司是互补产品的重要生产商时，对架构控制的激励尤其高。

C9 Summary【复习省流版】

The degree to which a firm can capture the rents from its innovation efforts is largely determined by the degree to which competitors can quickly and easily imitate the innovation. Some innovations are inherently difficult to copy; others are difficult to copy because of the mechanisms the firm uses to protect its innovation.

一家公司从其创新努力中获取收益的程度在很大程度上取决于竞争对手能够快速、轻松地模仿其创新的程度。有些创新本身就很难复制;由于公司用来保护其创新的机制，其他公司很难被复制。

The three primary legal mechanisms used to protect innovation in most countries are patents, trademarks, and copyrights. Each mechanism is designed to protect a different type of work or good.

在大多数国家，用于保护创新的三种主要法律机制是专利、商标和版权。每一种机制都是为保护不同类型的工作或商品而设计的。

International treaties have helped to harmonize patent, trademark, and copyright laws around the world. Most countries now have patent, trademark, and copyright laws of some form, and in some instances protection can be applied for in multiple countries simultaneously.

国际条约有助于协调世界各地的专利法、商标法和版权法。大多数国家现在都有某种形式的专利法、商标法和版权法，在某些情况下，可以同时在多个国家申请保护。

Trade secrets provide another mechanism of protecting innovation. Firms that protect their intellectual property as a trade secret often have legal recourse if another party wrongfully takes and uses such property.

商业秘密提供了另一种保护创新的机制。如果另一方错误地获取和使用这些知识产权，将其作为商业秘密加以保护的公司通常会诉诸法律。

Legal mechanisms for protecting innovation are more effective in some industries than others; in some industries, inventing around a patent or copyright is relatively easy. Similarly, in some industries it is nearly impossible to protect an innovation by using trade secrets because commercializing the innovation reveals its underlying technologies.

保护创新的法律机制在某些行业比其他行业更有效;在某些行业，围绕专利或版权进行发明相对容易。同样，在某些行业，通过使用商业秘密来保护创新几乎是不可能的，因为将创新商业化会暴露其底层技术。

Sometimes the choice between protecting versus diffusing a technology is not obvious. Both strategies offer potential advantages. Many firms use neither a wholly open nor wholly proprietary strategy, but rather a partially open strategy.

有时候，在保护还是扩散一项技术之间做出选择并不明显。这两种策略都有潜在的优势。许多公司既不采用完全开放的策略，也不采用完全专有的策略，而是采用部分开放的策略。

Protecting an innovation helps ensure that the firm earns the lion’s share of the returns from the innovation. These returns can then be reinvested in further developing the technology, promoting the technology, and producing complementary goods.

保护一项创新有助于确保公司从创新中获得最大份额的回报。然后，这些回报可以再投资于进一步开发技术、推广技术和生产互补产品。

Protecting an innovation also preserves the firm’s architectural control, enabling it to direct the technology’s development, determine its compatibility with other goods, and prevent multiple incompatible versions of the technology from being produced by other firms.

保护一项创新也保留了公司的架构控制，使其能够指导技术的发展，确定其与其他产品的兼容性，并防止其他公司生产该技术的多个不兼容版本。

Diffusing a technological innovation can encourage multiple firms to produce, distribute, and promote the technology, possibly accelerating its development and diffusion. Diffusion can be particularly useful in industries that accrue increasing returns to adoption. It is also useful when the firm has inadequate resources to be the sole developer, producer, distributor, and marketer of a good.

扩散一项技术创新可以鼓励多家企业生产、分销和推广这项技术，从而可能加速这项技术的发展和扩散。在通过采用而获得越来越多回报的行业中，扩散尤其有用。当公司没有足够的资源作为一种产品的唯一开发者、生产商、分销商和营销者时，这也很有用。

接下来我们要讨论的是如何组织创新

Size and Structural Dimensions of the Firm

Size: Is Bigger Better?

In the 1940s, Joseph Schumpeter challenged supporters of antitrust law by proposing that large firms would be more effective innovators. Schumpeter pointed out that

20世纪40年代，约瑟夫·熊彼特(Joseph Schumpeter)提出，大公司将是更有效的创新者，从而挑战了反垄断法的支持者。熊彼特指出

• capital markets are imperfect, and large firms are better able to obtain financing for R&D projects. 资本市场不完善，大企业更容易获得研发项目融资。
• firms with larger sales volume over which to spread the fixed costs of R&D would experience higher returns than firms with lower sales volume. 销售规模较大的企业将比销售规模较小的企业获得更高的回报，以分摊研发的固定成本。

Large firms are also likely to have better-developed complementary activities such as marketing or financial planning that enable them to be more effective innovators, and they are also likely to have greater global reach to obtain information or other resources.

大公司也可能有较发达的补充性活动，例如市场营销或财务规划，使它们能够成为更有效的创新者，而且它们也可能有更大的全球影响力来获得信息或其他资源。

Another advantage of size may arise in scale and learning effects. If large firms spend more on R&D in an absolute sense, they might also reap economies of scale and learning curve advantages in R&D—that is, they may get better and more efficient at it over time. Through investing in R&D, the firm develops competencies in the new product development process and thus may improve its development process. It may accumulate better research equipment and personnel.

规模的另一个优势可能是规模和学习效应。如果大公司在研发上投入更多，在绝对意义上，他们也可能在研发上获得规模经济和学习曲线优势——也就是说，随着时间的推移，他们可能会变得更好、更有效率。通过对研发的投资，企业在新产品开发过程中发展了能力，从而可以改进其开发过程。它可以积累更好的研究设备和人员。

Furthermore, as a large firm gains experience in choosing and developing innovation projects, it may learn to make better selections of projects that fit the firm’s capabilities and have a higher likelihood of success.

此外，随着大公司在选择和开发创新项目方面获得经验，它可能学会更好地选择适合公司能力的项目，并有更高的成功可能性。

Large firms are also in a better position to take on large or risky innovation projects than smaller firms.

与小公司相比，大公司在承担大型或高风险创新项目方面也处于更有利的地位。

• For example, only a large company such as Boeing could develop and manufacture a 747, and only large pharmaceutical companies can plow millions of dollars into drug development in hopes that one or two drugs are successful. 例如，只有像波音这样的大公司才能开发和制造747，只有大型制药公司才能投入数百万美元用于药物开发，希望一两种药物能够成功。

This suggests that in industries that have large development scale, large firms will tend to outperform small firms at innovation. In theory a coalition of small firms ought to achieve the same scale advantages, but in practice, coordinating a coalition of firms tends to be very difficult. While a single large firm can exert hierarchical authority over all of the development activities to ensure cooperation and coordination, coalitions often do not have such a well-defined system of authority and control.

这表明，在发展规模较大的行业中，大企业往往在创新方面优于小企业。理论上，小公司的联盟应该达到同样的规模优势，但在实践中，协调公司联盟往往是非常困难的。虽然单个大公司可以对所有发展活动施加等级权威，以确保合作和协调，但联盟往往没有这样一个明确的权威和控制系统。

On the other hand, as a firm grows, its R&D efficiency might decrease because of a loss of managerial control. That is, the bigger a firm gets the more difficult it can become to effectively monitor and motivate employees.

另一方面，随着企业的成长，其研发效率可能会因为管理控制的丧失而下降。也就是说，公司规模越大，就越难以有效地监督和激励员工。

Furthermore, as a firm grows, it becomes increasingly difficult for individual scientists or entrepreneurs to appropriate the returns of their efforts; therefore their incentives diminish. Thus, as the firm grows, the effectiveness of its governance systems may decrease.

此外，随着公司的发展，个别科学家或企业家越来越难以挪用他们努力的回报;因此，他们的动机减少了。因此，随着公司的成长，其治理系统的有效性可能会降低。

Large firms may also be less innovative becausetheir size can make them less nimble and responsive to change. Large firms typically have more bureaucratic inertia due to many layers of authority and well-developed policies and procedures.

大公司也可能缺乏创新，因为它们的规模会使它们对变化反应迟钝。大公司通常有更多的官僚惰性，由于许多层次的权威和完善的政策和程序。

• For example, in the early 1980s, Xerox discovered that the administrative layers it had added to prevent errors in new product development had the unintended effect of blocking a project’s progress, making product development cycles unacceptably long and putting Xerox at a disadvantage to more nimble Japanese competitors. 例如，在20世纪80年代初，施乐公司发现，为了防止新产品开发过程中出现错误而增加的管理层级，意外地阻碍了项目的进展，使产品开发周期长得令人无法接受，并使施乐公司在与更灵活的日本竞争对手竞争时处于不利地位。

Icarus Paradox 伊卡洛斯悖论

• High numbers of employees, large fixed-asset bases, and a large base of existing customers or supplier contracts can also be sources of inertia, making it difficult for the firm to change course quickly. 大量的员工，庞大的固定资产基础，以及大量的现有客户或供应商合同也可能成为惯性的来源，使公司难以迅速改变方向。
• As the number of employees grows, communication and coordination may become more difficult and prone to decision-making delays. When large firms have large fixed-asset bases and/or significant fixed costs, they often prefer to stick with existing sources of cash flow rather than gambling on big changes. 随着员工数量的增加，沟通和协调可能会变得更加困难，容易导致决策延迟。当大公司拥有庞大的固定资产基础和/或巨大的固定成本时，它们往往更愿意坚持现有的现金流来源，而不是押注于重大变化。
• Strategic commitments to customers and suppliers can also tie the firm to its existing businesses and technologies, making it more difficult to respond to technological change. Strategic commitments can thus lead to an Icarus Paradox—a firm’s prior success in the market can hinder its ability to respond to new technological generations 对客户和供应商的战略承诺也会将公司与现有业务和技术捆绑在一起，使其更难以应对技术变革。因此，战略承诺可能会导致伊卡洛斯悖论——公司在市场上的先前成功可能会阻碍其对新一代技术做出反应的能力

Advantages of Large Firms

In 1940s, Schumpeter argued that large firms would be more effective innovators 在20世纪40年代，熊彼特认为大公司是更有效的创新者

• Better able to obtain financing 更容易获得融资
• Better able to spread costs of R&D over large volume 能够更好地将研发成本分摊到大批量生产中

Large size may also enable…

大尺寸也可能使……

• greater access to all kinds of resources (information, equipment and personnel) 更多地利用各种资源(信息、设备和人员)
• Greater economies of scale and learning effects 更大的规模经济和学习效应
• Taking on large scale or risky projects 承担大规模或高风险的项目

Disadvantages of Large Firms

However, large firms might also be disadvantaged at innovation because…

然而，大公司在创新方面也可能处于不利地位，因为……

• R&D efficiency might decrease due to loss of managerial control 由于失去管理控制，研发效率可能会降低
• It’s difficult to maintain R&D staff incentives as the firm grows. 随着公司的发展，很难维持对研发人员的激励。
• Large firms have more bureaucratic inertia 大公司有更多的官僚惰性
• More strategic commitments tie firm to current technologies (Core Regidities, Icarus Paradox) 更多的战略承诺将公司与当前技术联系在一起(核心注册，伊卡洛斯悖论)
• Large enterprise disease/ less nimble and responsive to change /bureaucratic inertia 大企业病/对变化反应迟钝/官僚惰性

Small Firm could be better

Small firms often considered more flexible and entrepreneurial, because,

小公司通常被认为更具灵活性和创业精神，因为，

• They do not have the burden of a large bureaucracy 他们没有庞大官僚机构的负担
• They do not have large investments in fixed assets. 他们没有大量的固定资产投资
• These firms often have shorter development cycles 这些公司通常拥有更短的开发周期
• They tend to have a sharper focus because they have much more limited resources than larger firms. 他们往往有更清晰的焦点，因为他们的资源比大公司有限得多。

Many big firms have found ways of “feeling small”

许多大公司已经找到了“感觉自己小”的方法。

• Break overall firm into several subunits (e.g. Google) 将整个公司分成几个子单位(例如Google)
• Utilize different culture and controls in different units 在不同的单位使用不同的文化和控制
• Set up new separate businesses (e.g. IBM PC: DonEstridge, ) 建立新的独立业务(例如IBM PC: DonEstridge，)

Multiple studies have observed that in industries characterized by high-speed technological change, many large and hierarchical firms have been disaggregated (or “unbundled”) into networks of smaller, often more specialized, autonomous divisions or independent firms. In such industries, many firms have undergone large-scale downsizing, with many functions and layers of management eliminated. The giant multidivisional firms of the 20th century were replaced by leaner firms that were more focused and flexible, loosely coupled in a network of alliances, supplier relationships, and distribution agreements.

多项研究观察到，在以高速技术变革为特征的行业中，许多大型和等级森严的公司已被分解(或“分离”)成较小的、往往更专业化的自主部门或独立公司的网络。在这些行业中，许多公司经历了大规模的裁员，许多职能和管理阶层被取消。20世纪的大型多部门公司被更精简的公司所取代，这些公司更专注、更灵活，在联盟、供应商关系和分销网络中松散地联系在一起

This phenomenon led to the rise of terms such as virtual organization, network organization, and modular organization.

这种现象导致了虚拟组织、网络组织和模块化组织等术语的兴起。

Structure Dimensions of the Firm

Structural dimensions of the firm that are most likely to influence both its propensity to innovate and its effectiveness at innovation include formalization, standardization, and centralization.

最可能影响企业创新倾向和创新效率的结构维度包括正规化、标准化和集中化。

1. Formalization 正规化/形式化

• The degree to which the firm utilizes rules procedures, and written documentation to structure the behavior of individuals or groups within the organization. 公司运用规则、程序和书面文件来组织内部个人或团体行为的程度。
• Such rules and procedures can facilitate the standardization of firm activities and help to regulate employee behavior by providing clear expectations of behavior and decision-making criteria. 这些规则和程序可以促进企业活动的标准化，并通过提供明确的行为期望和决策标准来帮助规范员工行为。
• Formalization can substitute for some degree of managerial oversight, and thereby help large companies run smoothly with fewer managers. 正规化可以在一定程度上取代管理监督，从而帮助大公司在管理人员较少的情况下顺利运行。
• However, high degrees of formalization can also make a firm rigid. If a firm codifies all of its activities with detailed procedures, it may stifle employee creativity. Employees may not feel empowered or motivated to implement new solutions. 然而，高度的形式化也会使公司僵化。如果一个公司用详细的程序编纂其所有的活动，它可能会扼杀员工的创造力。员工可能会觉得没有权力或动力去实施新的解决方案。

2. Standardization

• The degree to which activities are performed in a uniform manner. 活动以统一的方式进行的程度。
• standardization can ensure that activities within the firm run smoothly and yield predictable outcomes, standardization can also stifle innovation. 标准化可以确保公司内部的活动顺利进行并产生可预测的结果，但标准化也会扼杀创新。
• Standardization may be used to ensure quality levels are met and that customers and suppliers are responded to consistently and equitably. TQM 标准化可用于确保达到质量水平，并对顾客和供应商作出一致和公平的反应。全面质量管理
• However, by minimizing variation, standardization can limit the creativity and experimentation that leads to innovative ideas. 然而，通过最小化变化，标准化可能会限制导致创新想法的创造力和实验。

3. Centralization

• The degree to which decision-making authority is kept at top levels of the firm, 决策权掌握在公司高层的程度

• Decentralization 非集权化

  • The degree to which decision-making authority is pushed down to lower levels of the firm. 决策权下放到公司较低层次的程度。

• Centralization can refer both to the geographical location of activities (that is, the degree to which activities are performed in a central location for the firm) and to where power and authority over activities are located. That is, activities might occur in locations far from the corporate headquarters, but the authority and decision making over those activities may be retained at headquarters— leading to greater centralization than their physical location would suggest. 集中化既可以指活动的地理位置(即企业在中心位置执行活动的程度)，也可以指活动的权力和权威所在的位置。也就是说，活动可能在远离公司总部的地点进行，但这些活动的权力和决策可能保留在总部- -导致比其实际地点所显示的更大的集中化。

• For firms that have multiple R&D projects ongoing, whether to centralize or decentralize R&D activities is a complex issue. 对于拥有多个研发项目的企业来说，集中还是分散研发活动是一个复杂的问题。

• The use of a centralized versus decentralize development process varies by type of firm and industry. 使用集中还是分散的开发过程因公司和行业的类型而异。

• Decentralizing R&D activities to the divisions of the firm enables those divisions to develop new products or processes that closely meet their particular division’s needs (see Figure 10.1). 将研发活动分散到公司的各个部门，使这些部门能够开发出符合其特定部门需求的新产品或新工艺(见图10.1)。

  • 

• There is some disagreement about whether centralization enhances or impedes a firm’s flexibility and responsiveness to technological change (or other environmental shifts). 关于集中化是增强还是阻碍了企业对技术变化(或其他环境变化)的灵活性和反应能力，存在一些分歧。

• A highly centralized firm may be better able to make a bold change in its overall direction because its tight command-and-control structure enables it to impose such change on lower levels of the firm in a decisive manner. 一个高度集中的企业可能更有能力在总体方向上做出大胆的改变，因为它严密的命令和控制结构使它能够以果断的方式将这种改变强加给企业的较低层次。

• Decentralized firms may struggle to get the cooperation from all the divisions necessary to undergo a significant change. 分散的公司可能很难获得所有部门的合作，以进行重大变革。

• But decentralized firms may be better able to respond to some types of technological or environmental change because not all decisions need to be passed up the hierarchy to top management; employees at lower levels are empowered to make decisions and changes independently and thus may be able to act more quickly. 但是，分散的公司也许能够更好地应对某些类型的技术或环境变化，因为并非所有的决策都需要向上传递给最高管理层;较低级别的员工被授权独立做出决定和改变，因此可能能够更快地采取行动。

Mechanistic vs. Organic Structures 机械结构vs有机结构

Mechanistic structure 机械式结构

The combination of formalization and standardization results in what is often termed a mechanistic structure.

形式化和标准化的结合产生了通常被称为机械结构的结构。

• An organization structure characterized by a high degree of formalization and standardization, causing operations to be almost automatic or mechanical. 一种以高度形式化和标准化为特征的组织结构，使操作几乎自动化或机械化。
• Mechanistic structures are often associated with greater operational efficiency, particularly in large-volume production settings. The careful adherence to policies and procedures combined with standardization of most activities results in a well-oiled machine that operates with great consistency and reliability. 机械结构通常与更高的操作效率相关，特别是在大批量生产环境中。仔细遵守政策和程序，结合大多数活动的标准化，会使机器运转良好，具有一致性和可靠性。

While mechanistic structures are often associated with high centralization, it is also possible to have a highly decentralized mechanistic structure by using formalization as a substitute for direct oversight. By establishing detailed rules, procedures, and standards, top management can push decision-making authority to lower levels of the firm while still ensuring that decisions are consistent with top management’s objectives.

虽然机械结构经常与高度集中联系在一起，但通过使用形式化作为直接监督的替代品，也可能具有高度分散的机械结构。通过建立详细的规则、程序和标准，高层管理人员可以将决策权下放到公司的较低层次，同时仍然确保决策与高层管理人员的目标一致。

Mechanistic structures, however, are often deemed unsuitable for fostering innovation. Mechanistic structures achieve efficiency by ensuring rigid adherence to standards and minimizing variation, potentially stifling creativity within the firm.

然而，机械性的结构往往被认为不适合促进创新。机械结构通过确保严格遵守标准和尽量减少变化来实现效率，这可能会扼杀公司内部的创造力。

Organic structures 有机结构

An organization structure characterized by a low degree of formalization and standardization. Employees may not have well-defined job responsibilities and operations may be characterized by a high degree of variation.

正规化和标准化程度较低的组织结构。员工可能没有明确的工作职责，操作可能具有高度变化的特征。

Organic structures that are more free-flowing, and characterized by low levels of formalization and standardization, are often considered better for innovation and dynamic environments.

更自由流动的有机结构，以低水平的正规化和标准化为特征，通常被认为更适合创新和动态环境。

In the organic structure, employees are given far more latitude in their job responsibilities and operating procedures. Because much innovation arises from experimentation and improvisation, organic structures are often thought to be better for innovation despite their possible detriment to efficiency.

在有机结构中，员工在工作职责和操作程序上有更大的自由度。由于许多创新源于实验和即兴创作，尽管有机结构可能会损害效率，但人们通常认为有机结构更有利于创新。

Size vs. Structure

Many advantages and disadvantages of firm size are actually due to structural dimensions of formalization, standardization, and centralization.

企业规模的许多优点和缺点实际上是由于正规化、标准化和集中化的结构维度。

• Large firms often make greater use of formalization and standardization because as the firm grows it becomes more difficult to exercise direct managerial oversight. 大公司往往更多地利用正规化和标准化，因为随着公司的发展，实施直接管理监督变得越来越困难。
• Formalization and standardization ease coordination costs (improving efficiency), at the expense of making the firm more mechanistic (less flexible and responsive to change). 正规化和标准化降低了协调成本(提高效率)，但代价是使企业更加机械化(灵活性和对变化的反应性降低)。

The Ambidextrous Organization: The Best of Both Worlds? 二元性组织:两全其美?

Most firms must simultaneously manage their existing product lines with efficiency, consistency, and incremental innovation, while still encouraging the development of new product lines and responding to technological change through more radical innovation.

大多数公司必须同时以效率、一致性和渐进式创新管理现有产品线，同时仍然鼓励开发新产品线，并通过更激进的创新来应对技术变革。

Tushman and O’Reilly argue that the solution is to create an ambidextrous organization.

图什曼和奥莱利认为，解决方案是创建一个二元性组织。

An ambidextrous organization is a firm with a complex organizational form that is composed of multiple internally inconsistent architectures that can collectively achieve both short-term efficiency and long-term innovation.

二元性组织是指具有复杂组织形式的公司，该组织由多个内部不一致的架构组成，这些架构可以共同实现短期效率和长期创新。

In other words, the ability of an organization to behave almost as two different kinds of companies at once. Different divisions of the firm may have different structures and control systems, enabling them to have different cultures and patterns of operations.

换句话说，一个组织同时表现为两种不同类型公司的能力。公司的不同部门可能有不同的结构和控制系统，使他们有不同的文化和经营模式。

Such firms might utilize mechanistic structures in some portions of the firm and organic structures in others. This is one of the rationales for setting up an R&D division that is highly distinct (either geographically or structurally) from the rest of the organization; a firm can use high levels of formalization and standardization in its manufacturing and distribution divisions, while using almost no formalization or standardization in its R&D division. Incentives in each of the divisions can be designed around different objectives, encouraging very different sets of behavior from employees.

这类企业可能在企业的某些部分采用机械结构，而在其他部分采用有机结构。这是建立一个与组织其他部门高度不同(无论是在地理上还是在结构上)的研发部门的基本原理之一;一个公司可以在其制造和分销部门使用高水平的正规化和标准化，而在其研发部门几乎不使用正规化或标准化。每个部门的激励措施都可以围绕不同的目标进行设计，鼓励员工不同的行为。

A firm can also centralize and tightly coordinate activities in divisions that reap great economies of scale such as manufacturing, while decentralizing activities such as R&D into many small units so that they behave like small, independent ventures. Whereas traditionally research emphasized the importance of diffusing information across the firm and ensuring cross-fertilization of ideas across new product development efforts, recent research suggests that some amount of isolation of teams, at least in early development stages, can be valuable. When multiple teams interact closely, there is a risk that a solution that appears to have an advantage (at least at the outset) will be too rapidly adopted by other teams.

企业还可以集中并紧密协调各部门的活动，以获得巨大的规模经济效益，如制造，同时将研发等活动分散到许多小单位，使它们的行为像小型的、独立的企业。尽管传统研究强调在公司内部传播信息和确保新产品开发过程中想法的交叉融合的重要性，但最近的研究表明，至少在早期开发阶段，一定程度的团队隔离可能是有价值的。当多个团队密切互动时，就存在这样一种风险:一个看起来具有优势的解决方案(至少在一开始)可能会很快被其他团队采用。

This can cause all of the teams to converge on the same ideas, thwarting the development of other creative approaches that might have advantages in the long run.

这可能会导致所有团队集中在相同的想法上，阻碍其他创造性方法的发展，而这些方法从长远来看可能具有优势。

Consistent with this, a significant body of research on “skunk works” has indicated that there can be significant gains from isolating new product development teams from the mainstream organization.

与此一致的是，关于“臭鼬工厂”的大量研究表明，将新产品开发团队与主流组织隔离开来可能会有显著的收获。

Skunk Works is a term that originated with a division of Lockheed Martin that was formed in June of 1943 to quickly develop a jet fighter for the United States Army. It has evolved as skunk works to refer more generally to new product development teams that operate nearly autonomously from the parent organization, with considerable decentralization of authority and little bureaucracy.

臭鼬工厂/秘密研发小组/项目(Skunk Works)这个词起源于洛克希德·马丁公司(Lockheed Martin)的一个部门，该部门成立于1943年6月，目的是为美国陆军快速开发一种喷气式战斗机。它已经演变为臭鼬工作，更广泛地指新产品开发团队，这些团队几乎独立于母公司运作，具有相当大的权力分散和很少的官僚主义。

Modularity and “Loosely-coupled” Organizations 模块化和“松耦合”组织

Modularity

Another method firms use to strike a balance between efficiency and flexibility is to adopt standardized manufacturing platforms or components that can then be mixed and matched in a modular production system.

企业用来在效率和灵活性之间取得平衡的另一种方法是采用标准化的制造平台或组件，然后在模块化生产系统中进行混合和匹配

This enables them to achieve standardization advantages (such as efficiency and reliability) at the component level, while achieving variety and flexibility at the end product level.

这使他们能够在组件级别实现标准化优势(例如效率和可靠性)，同时在最终产品级别实现多样性和灵活性。

Modular Products

模块化产品

• Modularity refers to the degree to which a system’s components can be separated and recombined. 模块化指的是系统组件可以分离和重组的程度。
• Making products modular can exponentially increase the number of possible configurations achievable from a given set of inputs. 使产品模块化可以成倍地增加从给定的一组输入可实现的可能配置的数量。
• Modularity is achieved in product design through the specification of standard interfaces. 通过规范标准接口，实现产品设计的模块化。

Because modularity enables a wider range of end configurations to be achieved from a given set of inputs, it provides a relatively cost-effective way for firms to meet heterogeneous customer demands.

由于模块化能够从一组给定的输入中实现更广泛的终端配置，因此它为公司提供了一种相对经济有效的方式来满足不同的客户需求。

Furthermore, since modularity can enable one component to be upgraded without changing other components, modularity can enable firms and customers to upgrade their products without replacing their entire system.

此外，由于模块化可以在不改变其他组件的情况下升级一个组件，因此模块化可以使公司和客户在不更换整个系统的情况下升级他们的产品。

• Products may be modular at user level (e.g., IKEA shelving systems, Dell customized PC or laptop), manufacturing level (e.g., Sony’s Walkman), or other levels. 产品在用户级(例如宜家货架系统、戴尔定制PC或笔记本电脑)、制造级(例如索尼随身听)或其他级别上可能是模块化的。

Modular products become more valuable when customers have heterogeneous demands and there are diverse options for meeting them.

当客户有不同的需求并且有不同的选择来满足他们时，模块化产品变得更有价值。

When products are made more modular, it enables the entire production system to be made more modular. The standard interfaces reduce the amount of coordination that must take place between the developers of different components, freeing them to pursue more flexible arrangements than the typical organizational hierarchy.

当产品变得更加模块化时，它使整个生产系统变得更加模块化。标准接口减少了不同组件的开发人员之间必须进行的协调，使他们能够追求比典型的组织层次结构更灵活的安排。

Such flexible arrangements are referred to as “loosely coupled organizational structures.”

这种灵活的安排被称为“松散耦合的组织结构”。

Loosely Coupled Organizational Structures

Organizations can also be made modular through the adoption of structures that enable “loose coupling.”

还可以通过采用支持“松耦合”的结构使组织模块化。

In a loosely coupled structure development and production activities are not tightly integrated but rather achieve coordination through their adherence to shared objectives and common standards.

在松散耦合的结构中，开发和生产活动不是紧密集成的，而是通过遵守共同的目标和共同的标准来实现协调。

Advances in information technology have also enabled loosely coupled organizational structures to become more common.

信息技术的进步也使得松散耦合的组织结构变得更加普遍。

Information technology can enable a firm to access and process more information at a lower cost, vastly increasing the firm’s options for development configurations. For example, information technology lowers a firm’s search costs for locating suitable development partners, as well as the costs of monitoring the partner’s performance.

信息技术可以使企业以较低的成本获取和处理更多的信息，极大地增加了企业发展配置的选择。例如，信息技术降低了公司寻找合适的开发合作伙伴的成本，以及监控合作伙伴绩效的成本。

There are, however, disadvantages of loose coupling. Many activities reap significant synergies by being integrated.

然而，松耦合也有缺点。许多活动通过整合获得显著的协同效应。

In particular, activities that require the frequent exchange of complex or tacit knowledge are likely to need closer integration than a loosely coupled development configuration can offer.

特别是，需要频繁交换复杂或隐性知识的活动可能需要比松散耦合的开发配置所能提供的更紧密的集成。

An integrated firm also has mechanisms for resolving conflict that may be more effective or less expensive than those available in the market.

整合后的公司也有解决冲突的机制，这些机制可能比市场上现有的机制更有效或成本更低。

Managing Innovation Across Borders 管理跨境创新

The organization of innovation activities becomes particularly interesting for multinational firms. Many of the same issues that shape the centralization-versus-decentralization decision discussed earlier become highly amplified in the multinational firm. Foreign markets offer highly diverse sources of information and other resources. They may also have highly diverse product needs and different operating norms. This prompts many firms to consider decentralizing R&D to take advantage of local information and tailor innovation activities to the local market.

跨国公司对创新活动的组织尤为感兴趣。之前讨论过的决定集中还是分散的许多同样的问题在跨国公司中被高度放大。国外市场提供了高度多样化的信息和其他资源。他们也可能有高度不同的产品需求和不同的操作规范。这促使许多公司考虑分散研发以利用当地信息并根据当地市场定制创新活动。

However, innovations developed in this decentralized manner might never be diffused to the other divisions.

然而，以这种分散方式发展的创新可能永远不会扩散到其他部门。

How does the multinational resolve this dilemma?

Christopher Bartlett and Sumantra Ghoshal highlight some advantages and disadvantages of various approaches to the management of multinational innovation. They identify four primary strategies used by firms: center-for-global, local-for-local, locally leveraged, and globally linked.

Christopher Bartlett 和 Sumantra Ghoshal 强调了各种跨国创新管理方法的优缺点。他们确定了公司使用的四种主要策略:中心对全球、地方对地方、地方杠杆和全球联系。

1. Center-for-global strategy

Center-for-global strategy entails conducting all innovation activities at a centralized hub. These innovations are then deployed globally throughout the company. The centralization of innovation activities enables management to:

全球中心战略要求在一个集中的枢纽开展所有创新活动。然后，这些创新在整个公司的全球范围内部署。创新活动的集中化使管理层能够:

• Tightly coordinate all R&D activities (across both functions and projects). 紧密协调所有研发活动(包括职能和项目)。
• Achieve greater specialization and economies of scale in R&D activities while avoiding duplication of activities in multiple divisions. 在研发活动中实现更大的专业化和规模经济，同时避免多个部门的活动重复。
• Develop and protect core competencies. 发展和保护核心竞争力
• Ensure that innovations are standardized and implemented throughout the company. 确保创新是标准化的，并在整个公司实施。

Managers are likely to choose a center-for-global approach to innovation when they have a strong desire to control the evolution of a technology, when they have strong concerns about the protection of proprietary technologies, when development activities require close coordination, or when there is a need to respond quickly to technological change and dispersed efforts are likely to create inefficiencies.

当管理者强烈希望控制一项技术的发展时，当他们强烈关注专有技术的保护时，当开发活动需要密切协调时，或者当需要对技术变化迅速作出反应时，分散的努力可能会造成效率低下时，他们可能会选择一种从中心到全球的创新方法。

However, a center-for-global approach tends to not be very responsive to the diverse demands of different markets. Furthermore, the divisions that serve these markets might resist adopting or promoting centrally developed innovations. As a result, innovations developed centrally may not closely fit the needs of foreign markets and may also not be deployed quickly or effectively.

然而，以全球为中心的方法往往不能很好地响应不同市场的不同需求。此外，服务于这些市场的部门可能会抵制采用或促进集中开发的创新。因此，集中开发的创新可能不太符合国外市场的需求，也可能无法迅速有效地部署。

2. Local-for-local strategy

Local-for-local strategy is the opposite of the center-for-global strategy. Each national subsidiary uses its own resources to create innovations that respond to the needs of its local market.

本地对本地的策略与中心对全球的策略相反。每个国家子公司都利用自己的资源进行创新，以满足当地市场的需求。

A local-for-local strategy takes advantage of access to diverse information and resources, and it customizes innovation for the needs and tastes of the local market.

因地制宜的战略利用了获取多样化信息和资源的机会，并根据当地市场的需求和口味定制创新。

Managers are likely to choose a local-for-local strategy when divisions are very autonomous and when markets are highly differentiated.

当部门非常自主，市场高度分化时，管理者可能会选择本地对本地的策略。

There are several downsides to the local-for-local strategy, however. It can result in significant redundancy in activities as each division reinvents the wheel.

然而，这种以地换地的策略也有一些缺点。由于每个部门都在重新发明轮子，这可能导致活动中的大量冗余。

Furthermore, each division may suffer from a lack of scale in R&D activities, and there is a risk that valuable innovations will not be diffused across the firm.

此外，每个部门都可能受到研发活动规模不足的影响，并且存在有价值的创新无法在整个公司扩散的风险。

3. Locally leveraged strategy

A firm implementing a locally leveraged strategy attempts to take the most creative resources and innovative developments from the divisions and deploy them across the company.

实施本地杠杆战略的公司试图从各部门获取最具创造性的资源和创新发展，并将其部署到整个公司。

Bartlett and Ghoshal identify one such strategy as the locally leveraged strategy.

Bartlett和Ghoshal确定了一种这样的策略，即本地杠杆策略。

This strategy enables the firm to take advantage of the diverse ideas and resources created in local markets, while leveraging these innovations across the company.

这一战略使公司能够利用当地市场创造的各种想法和资源，同时在整个公司中利用这些创新。

One way this strategy is employed in consumer markets is to assign an individual the role of international brand custodian. This person is responsible for ensuring that a successful brand is deployed into the firm’s multiple markets while also maintaining consistency in the product’s image and positioning.

这种策略在消费者市场上的一种应用方式是指派一个人担任国际品牌保管人的角色。这个人负责确保一个成功的品牌被部署到公司的多个市场，同时保持产品形象和定位的一致性。

Such a strategy can be very effective if different markets the company serves have similar needs.

如果公司服务的不同市场有相似的需求，这种策略可能非常有效。

4. Globally linked strategy

Globally linked strategy, entails creating a system of decentralized R&D divisions that are connected to each other.

全球联合战略需要建立一个分散的研发部门系统，这些部门相互连接。

• Innovation activities are decentralized, but also centrally coordinated for the global needs of the corporation. 创新活动是分散的，但也集中协调公司的全球需求。
• Each geographically decentralized division might be charged with a different innovation task that serves the global company’s needs. 每个地理上分散的部门可能会负责不同的创新任务，以满足全球公司的需求。
• Thus, while innovation is decentralized to take advantage of resources and talent pools offered in different geographic markets, it is also globally coordinated to meet companywide objectives. 因此，虽然创新是分散的，以利用不同地理市场提供的资源和人才库，但它也是全球协调的，以满足公司范围的目标。
• This approach also attempts to enable the learning accrued through innovation activities to be diffused throughout the firm. 这种方法还试图使通过创新活动积累的学习能够在整个公司传播。
• This strategy can be quite powerful in its ability to tap and integrate global resources, but it is also expensive in both time and money as it requires intensive coordination. 这一战略在开发和整合全球资源方面可能相当强大，但它在时间和金钱上也很昂贵，因为它需要密切协调。

Bartlett and Ghoshal argue that, overall, the multinational firm’s objective is to make centralized innovation activities more effective (that is, better able to serve the various local markets) while making decentralized innovation activities more efficient (that is, eliminating redundancies and exploiting synergies across divisions).

Bartlett和Ghoshal认为，总体而言，跨国公司的目标是使集中的创新活动更有效(即更好地服务于各种本地市场)，同时使分散的创新活动更有效(即消除冗余和利用跨部门的协同效应)。

这块的一个小summary

Bartlett and Ghoshal propose that firms should take a transnational approachwherein resources and capabilities that exist anywhere within the firm can be leveraged and deployed to exploit any opportunity that arises in any geographic market. They argue that this can be achieved by:

Bartlett 和 Ghoshal 提出，公司应该采取一种跨国方法，利用和部署公司内部任何地方存在的资源和能力，利用任何地域市场出现的任何机会。他们认为这可以通过以下方式实现:

• Encouraging reciprocal interdependence among the divisions of the firm (that is, each division must recognize its dependency on the other divisions of the firm). 鼓励公司各部门之间的相互依赖(也就是说，每个部门必须承认它对公司其他部门的依赖)。
• Utilizing integration mechanisms across the divisions, such as division-spanning teams, rotating personnel across divisions, and so on. 利用跨部门的集成机制，例如跨部门的团队、跨部门的人员轮换等等。
• Balancing the organization’s identity between its national brands and its global image. 在国家品牌和全球形象之间平衡组织的身份。

Organizational Culture for Innovation

Optimum creativity and innovation occurs in a culture that includes:

最佳的创造力和创新发生在这样一种文化中:

• a) Psychological safety. Where the individual has unconditioned worth. Where it is recognised that the individual is capable of producing without his or her value based on having to produce. 心理安全。个人拥有无条件的价值。人们认识到，即使个人的价值不是建立在必须生产的基础上，他或她也有能力生产。
• b) Psychological freedom. Where the individual is free to express without that expression being evaluated. 心理上的自由。在那里，个人可以自由表达，而不需要对这种表达进行评估。
• c) Empathy. Where an individual is understood from their point of view and perception. 同理心。从个人的角度和感知来理解一个人。
• d) Ideas are accepted and advanced. That the recognition of the output of the individual is the reward. 思想被接受和推进。对个人成果的认可就是奖励。

Build a Culture for Innovation

Organizational culture is defined as the specific collection of values and norms that are shared by people and groups in an organization and that control the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders outside the organization.

组织文化被定义为组织中人员和群体共享的特定价值观和规范的集合，这些价值观和规范控制着他们彼此之间以及与组织外部利益相关者之间的互动方式。

Culture is comprised of the assumptions, values, norms and tangible signs (artifacts) of organization members and their behaviors.

文化是由组织成员及其行为的假设、价值观、规范和有形标志(工件)组成的。

A culture for innovation:

• Value: customer-centric approach, encouraging risk-taking, tolerance of failure 价值观:以客户为中心，鼓励冒险，容忍失败
• Norms and rules: flexible organizational structure, open communication, Teamwork and collaboration, innovation stimulating and rewarding, innovation assessment, human resource management (hiring/training), leader’s participation, etc 规范与规则:灵活的组织结构、开放的沟通、团队合作与协作、创新激励与奖励、创新评估、人力资源管理(招聘/培训)、领导者参与等
• Tangible factors: slogan, medal, information system, idea collection box, etc 有形因素:标语、奖牌、信息系统、创意收集箱等

C10 Summary【复习省流版】

The impact of firm size on innovation has been debated for more than 50 years. Size is thought to confer advantages such as economies of scale in R&D, greater access to complementary resources (like capital and market access), and learning benefits. However, size may also be associated with disadvantages such as inertia and governance problems.

企业规模对创新的影响已经争论了50多年。规模被认为能带来诸如研发规模经济、更容易获得互补资源(如资本和市场准入)以及学习收益等优势。然而，规模也可能与惰性和治理问题等缺点联系在一起。

Many firms attempt to make big companies feel small by breaking them into networks of more specialized divisions. These divisions can behave like smaller, more entrepreneurial firms.

许多公司试图通过将大公司分解成由更专业的部门组成的网络，让大公司感觉自己很小。这些部门可以像规模更小、更具创业精神的公司一样运作。

Structural dimensions of the firm, including formalization, standardization, and centralization, also affect the firm’s propensity to innovate and its effectiveness at innovation. Formalization and standardization tend to improve efficiency, but can stifle experimentation and creativity. Centralization has a more ambiguous effect on innovation; in some cases, centralization can enable significant innovation to occur more rapidly, and in other situations, decentralization fosters more innovation by enabling managers to respond quickly to local needs.

企业的正规化、标准化、集中化等结构维度也会影响企业的创新倾向和创新效率。形式化和标准化倾向于提高效率，但可能会扼杀实验和创造力。集中化对创新的影响更加模糊;在某些情况下，集中化可以使重大创新更快地发生，而在其他情况下，分权通过使管理人员能够快速响应当地需求，促进更多的创新。

Traditionally, scholars have divided organization structures into two major types: mechanistic structures, which are highly formalized and standardized, and are good for efficient production, and organic structures, which are loose and free flowing and are good for creativity and experimentation.

传统上，学者们将组织结构分为两大类:一种是高度正规化、标准化、有利于高效生产的机械结构，另一种是松散、自由流动、有利于创新和实验的有机结构。

Ambidextrous organizations attempt to achieve both the efficiency advantages of large mechanistic firms and the creativity and entrepreneurial spirit of small organic firms. These firms may have divisions with different structures and control schemes, or they may alternate between different structures.

二元性组织试图同时获得大型机械化企业的效率优势和小型有机企业的创造力和企业家精神。这些公司可能有不同结构和控制方案的部门，或者它们可能在不同结构之间交替。

Recently many firms have begun forming loosely coupled networks both within and between firms to conduct development activities. Part of this transition is attributed to the rise in information technology and the resultant decrease in coordination costs.

最近，许多公司开始在公司内部和公司之间形成松散耦合的网络来开展开发活动。这一转变的部分原因是信息技术的发展以及由此产生的协调成本的降低。

Multinational firms face significant challenges in determining where and how to conduct their R&D activities. One primary challenge is to balance the need to tap the knowledge and resources of local markets while also achieving coherence across the corporation and ensure that technological innovations are diffused and leveraged throughout the organization.

跨国公司在决定在何处以及如何开展研发活动方面面临着重大挑战。一个主要的挑战是平衡利用当地市场的知识和资源的需求，同时在整个公司实现一致性，并确保技术创新在整个组织中得到扩散和利用。

最后，我们要来讨论部署策略，本章更像是一个综合性的东西

Overview

Deployment strategies can influence the receptivity of customers, distributors, and complementary goods providers.

部署策略可以影响客户、分销商和互补产品供应商的接受度。

• Effective deployment strategies can reduce uncertainty about the product, lower resistance to switching from competing or substitute goods, and accelerate adoption. 有效的部署策略可以减少产品的不确定性，降低从竞争产品或替代产品切换的阻力，并加速采用。
• Ineffective deployment strategies can cause even brilliant technological innovations to fail. 无效的部署策略甚至会导致辉煌的技术创新失败。

We will cover five key elements of the deployment process in this chapter: launch timing, licensing and compatibility, pricing, distribution, and marketing.

我们将在本章中讨论部署过程的五个关键要素:发布时间、许可和兼容性、定价、分销和营销。

Launch Timing

As illustrated by the video game industry, the timing of the product launch can be a significant part of a company’s deployment strategy.

正如电子游戏行业所示，产品发布的时机是公司部署策略的重要组成部分。

The advantages and disadvantages of being a first, early-but-not-first, or late mover were discussed in Chapter Five; the focus here is on how a firm can use timing as a deployment strategy.

第五章讨论了先发、先发但不是第一和后发的利弊;这里的重点是公司如何使用时间作为部署策略。

Strategic Timing of Entry

Generally, firms try to decrease their development cycles in order to decrease their costs and to increase their timing of entry options, but this does not imply that firms should always be racing to launch their products as early as possible.

一般来说，公司试图减少他们的开发周期，以减少他们的成本和增加他们的进入选择的时间，但这并不意味着公司应该总是竞相尽早推出他们的产品。

A firm can strategically use launch timing to take advantage of business cycle or seasonal effects, to position its product with respect to previous generations of related technologies, and to ensure that production capacity and complementary goods or services are in place.

公司可以战略性地利用发布时间来利用商业周期或季节效应，将其产品与前几代相关技术相比较，并确保生产能力和互补产品或服务到位。

• Christmas/11.11/Valentine’s/ Double Sevenths 圣诞节/双十一/情人节/七夕节
• The role of each of these tactics is illustrated in the video game industry. 这些策略的作用在电子游戏产业中都得到了说明。

Optimizing Cash Flow versus Embracing Cannibalization Entry 优化现金流vs拥抱自相残杀

Embracing Cannibalization Entry这个实在找不到好的翻译了T_T

A second key point about timing of entry is for firms introducing a next generation technology into a market in which they already compete, entry timing can become a decision about whether and to what degree to embrace cannibalization.

关于进入时机的第二个关键点是，对于公司将下一代技术引入他们已经竞争的市场，进入时机可以决定是否以及在多大程度上接受同类相食。

• When a firm’s sales of one product (or at one location) diminish its sales of another of its products (or at another of its locations). 当一个公司的一种产品(或在一个地点)的销售减少了另一种产品(或在另一个地点)的销售。

This is also illustrated in the video game industry.

这一点在电子游戏行业中也得到了体现。

Traditionally, research on product life cycles has emphasized the importance of timing new product introduction so as to optimize cash flows or profits from each generation and minimize cannibalization. If a firm’s current product is very profitable, the firm will often delay introduction of a next generation product until profits have begun to significantly decrease for the current product. This strategy is intended to maximize the firm’s return on investment in developing each generation of the product.

传统上，对产品生命周期的研究强调新产品推出时机的重要性，以优化每一代产品的现金流或利润，并最大限度地减少同类相食。如果公司现有的产品非常有利可图，那么公司通常会推迟推出下一代产品，直到当前产品的利润开始显著下降。这一策略旨在使公司开发每一代产品的投资回报最大化。

However, in industries driven by technological innovation, delaying the introduction of a next generation product can enable competitors to achieve a significant technological gap. If competitors introduce products that have a large technological advantage over the firm’s current products, customers might begin abandoning the firm’s technology.

然而，在以技术创新为驱动的行业中，推迟新一代产品的推出可能会使竞争对手实现显著的技术差距。如果竞争对手推出的产品在技术上比公司现有的产品有很大优势，客户可能会开始放弃公司的技术。

Instead, if the firm invests in continuous innovation and willingly cannibalizes its existing products with more advanced products, the firm can make it very difficult for other firms to achieve a technological lead large enough to prove persuasive to customers.

相反，如果公司投资于持续创新，并愿意用更先进的产品取代现有产品，那么公司就会使其他公司很难取得足够大的技术领先优势，以证明对客户有说服力。

By providing incentives for existing customers to upgrade to its newest models, the firm can further remove any incentive customers have to switch to another company’s products when they purchase next generation technology.

通过为现有客户提供升级到最新型号的奖励，公司可以进一步消除客户在购买下一代技术时必须切换到另一家公司产品的任何奖励。

Licensing and Compatibility 许可和兼容性

Chapter Nine revealed how making a technology more open could speed its adoption by enabling more producers to improve and promote the technology and allowing complementary goods developers to more easily support the technology.

第九章揭示了如何使一项技术更加开放，从而使更多的生产者能够改进和推广这项技术，并允许互补产品的开发商更容易地支持这项技术，从而加速这项技术的采用。

However, the chapter also pointed out that making a technology completely open poses several risks.

然而，这一章也指出，使一项技术完全开放会带来一些风险。

First, if a firm completely opens its technology, other producers may drive the price of the technology down to a point at which the firm is unable to recoup its development expense.

首先，如果一家公司完全开放其技术，其他生产商可能会将该技术的价格降低到该公司无法收回其开发费用的程度。

If competition drives the price down so no producer earns significant margins on the technology, no producer will have much incentive to further develop the technology.

如果竞争压低了价格，没有生产商能从这项技术中获得可观的利润，那么就没有生产商有动力进一步开发这项技术。

Finally, opening a technology completely may cause its underlying platform to become fragmented as different producers alter it to their needs, resulting in loss of compatibility across producers and the possible erosion of product quality.

最后，完全开放一项技术可能会导致其底层平台变得支离破碎，因为不同的生产者会根据自己的需求对其进行修改，从而导致生产者之间的兼容性丧失，并可能侵蚀产品质量。

In short, protecting a technology too little can result in (low quality complements) and clones; protecting too much may impede development of complements. Firm must carefully decide:

简而言之，对技术的保护过少可能导致(低质量的补充)和克隆;过度保护可能会阻碍补体的发展。公司必须慎重决定:

• How compatible to be with products of others? 如何与他人的产品兼容?
  • If firm is dominant, generally prefers incompatibility with others’ platforms, may use controlled licensing for complements. 如果公司占主导地位，通常倾向于与其他平台不兼容，可能会使用控制许可来补充。
  • If firm is at installed base disadvantage, generally prefers some compatibility with others and aggressive licensing for complements. 如果公司在安装基础上处于劣势，通常更喜欢与其他公司的一些兼容性和积极的许可来补充。

In short, protecting a technology too little can result in (low quality complements) and clones; protecting too much may impede development of complements.

简而言之，对技术的保护过少可能导致(低质量的补充)和克隆;过度保护可能会阻碍补体的发展。

Firm must carefully decide:

• Whether to make product compatible with own previous generations (“backward compatibility”) 是否使产品与自己的上一代产品兼容(“向后兼容”)
  • When products of a technological generation can work with products of a previous generation. For example, a computer is backward compatible if it can run the same software as a previous generation of the computer. 当技术一代的产品可以与上一代的产品协同工作时。例如，如果一台计算机可以运行与上一代计算机相同的软件，那么它就是向后兼容的。
  • If installed base and complements are important, backward compatibility usually used. 如果安装的基础和补充是重要的，通常使用向后兼容性。

Some firms use a particularly powerful strategy that combines continuous innovation with backward compatibility.

一些公司采用一种特别强大的策略，将持续创新与向后兼容结合起来。

A firm that both innovates to prevent a competitor from creating a technological gap and utilizes backward compatibility so that its new platform or models are compatible with previous generations of complementary goods can leverage the existing value yielded by a large range of complementary goods to its new platforms. While such a strategy may cause the firm to forfeit some sales of complementary goods for the new platform (at least initially), it can also effectively link the generations through time and can successfully transition customers through product generations while preventing competitors from having a window to enter the market. Microsoft has utilized this strategy deftly with Windows—though the operating system is regularly updated, each successive generation provides backward compatibility with most of the major software applications developed for previous generations. Thus, customers can upgrade without having to replace their entire libraries of software applications.

如果一个公司既通过创新来防止竞争对手制造技术差距，又利用向后兼容性，使其新平台或模型与前几代互补产品兼容，那么它就可以利用新平台上大量互补产品产生的现有价值。虽然这样的策略可能导致公司为新平台放弃一些补充性商品的销售(至少在最初)，但它也可以通过时间有效地连接世代，并可以成功地通过产品世代过渡客户，同时防止竞争对手获得进入市场的窗口。微软在windows上巧妙地利用了这一策略——尽管操作系统定期更新，但每一代都提供了向后兼容性，与前几代开发的大多数主要软件应用程序保持一致。因此，客户无需更换整个软件应用程序库就可以进行升级。

Pricing

Pricing is a crucial element in the firm’s deployment strategy.

定价是公司部署战略中的一个关键因素。

• Price simultaneously influences the product’s positioning in the marketplace, its rate of adoption, and the firm’s cash flow. Before a firm can determine its pricing strategy, it must determine the objectives it has for its pricing model. 价格同时影响着产品在市场中的定位、采用率和公司的现金流。在企业确定其定价策略之前，它必须确定其定价模型的目标。
• What are firm’s objectives? 公司的目标是什么?
  • Survival (to cover costs) 生存(支付费用)
  • Maximize current profits (emphasizing current performance) 最大化当前利润(强调当前业绩)
  • Maximize market share (emphasizing long-term performance) 最大化市场份额(强调长期业绩)

If a firm is in an industry plagued with overcapacity or intense price competition, the firm’s objective may be simply survival. A survival price strategy prices goods to cover variable costs and some fixed costs. However, it is a short-run strategy.

如果一家企业所处的行业产能过剩或价格竞争激烈，那么它的目标可能只是生存。生存价格策略为商品定价以覆盖可变成本和一些固定成本。然而，这是一种短期策略。

In the long run, the firm will want to find a way to create additional value. One common pricing objective is to maximize current profits. Under this pricing strategy, the firm first estimates costs and demand and then sets the price to maximize cash flow or rate of return on investment. This strategy emphasizes current performance, but may sacrifice long-term performance.

从长远来看，公司会想要找到创造附加价值的方法。一个常见的定价目标是使当前利润最大化。在这种定价策略下，企业首先估算成本和需求，然后设定价格以使现金流或投资回报率最大化。这种策略强调当前性能，但可能牺牲长期性能。

For new technological innovations, firms often emphasize either a maximum market skimming objective or a maximum market share objective.

对于新的技术创新，企业经常强调最大市场撇脂目标或最大市场份额目标。

To skim the market, firms will initially set prices high on new products. The high price may signal the market that the new product is a significant innovation that offers a substantial performance improvement over previously available products. The high price can also help the firm recoup initial development expenses, assuming there is also high initial demand.

为了抢占市场，公司一开始会给新产品定高价格。高价格可能会向市场发出信号，表明新产品是一项重大创新，比以前的产品提供了实质性的性能改进。假设初始需求也很高，高价格也可以帮助公司收回初始开发费用。

However, high initial prices may also attract competitors to the market and can slow adoption of the product. If costs are expected to decline rapidly with the volume of units produced, a skimming strategy can actually prove less profitable than a pricing strategy that stimulates more rapid customer adoption. When achieving high volume is important, firms will often emphasize a maximum market share objective.

然而，高昂的初始价格也可能吸引竞争对手进入市场，并可能减缓产品的采用。如果成本预计会随着产品产量的增加而迅速下降，那么撇脂策略的利润实际上会比刺激客户更快接受的定价策略低。当实现高产量很重要时，公司通常会强调最大市场份额的目标。

To maximize market share, firms often use penetration pricing.

为了使市场份额最大化，企业通常采用渗透定价。

• When the price of a good is set very low (or free) to maximize the good’s market share. 当一种商品的价格被设定得很低(或免费)，以最大化该商品的市场份额。
• The firm will set the lowest price possible hoping to rapidly attract customers, driving volume up and production costs down. Effective utilization of penetration pricing often requires that the firm builds large production capacity in advance of demand. In the short run, the firm may bear significant risk from this capital investment, and it may lose money on each unit if the price is less than its initial variable costs. However, if its volume increases and drives its production costs down, the firm can achieve a very powerful position: It can have a low-cost position that enables it to earn profits despite a low price, and it can have a substantial share of the market. 该公司将制定尽可能低的价格，希望迅速吸引客户，推动产量上升和生产成本下降。渗透定价的有效利用通常要求企业在需求之前建立大量的生产能力。在短期内，公司可能会承担这项资本投资的重大风险，如果价格低于其初始可变成本，则每一单位可能会亏损。然而，如果它的产量增加，生产成本下降，公司就可以达到一个非常强大的地位:它可以有一个低成本的地位，使它能够在低价的情况下赚取利润，并且它可以拥有相当大的市场份额。

Firms in industries characterized by increasing returns (strong learning-curve effects and/or network externalities) will often use the objective of maximizing market share and a penetration pricing strategy.

以收益增加(强学习曲线效应和/或网络外部性)为特征的行业中的公司将经常使用最大化市场份额的目标和渗透定价策略。

In such industries, there is strong pressure for the industry to adopt a single dominant design (as discussed in Chapter Four). It is in the firm’s best interest to accelerate adoption of its technology, building its installed base, attracting developers of complementary goods, and riding down the learning curve for its production costs.

在这些行业中，行业采用单一主导设计的压力很大(如第四章所述)。加速其技术的采用，建立其安装基础，吸引互补产品的开发商，并降低其生产成本的学习曲线，符合公司的最大利益。

Sometimes firms price below cost because the losses are expected to be recouped through profits on complementary goods or services. In the video game industry, this has proven to be a very important strategy.

有时，公司将价格定在成本以下，因为预计损失可以通过补充商品或服务的利润来弥补。在电子游戏产业中，这是一个非常重要的策略。

Firms can also influence cash flow and the customers’ perception of costs through manipulating the timing of when the price of a good is paid. For instance, while the most typical pricing model requires the customer to pay the full price before taking ownership, other pricing models enable the customer to delay paying the purchase price by offering a free trial for a fixed time.

企业还可以通过操纵商品支付价格的时机来影响现金流和顾客对成本的感知。例如，最典型的定价模式要求客户在获得所有权之前支付全价，而其他定价模式则允许客户通过提供固定时间的免费试用来延迟支付购买价格。

This permits the customer to become familiar with the benefits of the product before paying the price, and it can be very useful when customers face great uncertainty about a new product or service. Another pricing model enables customers to pay as they go, such as through leasing programs, or a pricing model whereby the initial product is free (or available at a low price) but the customer pays for service.

这允许顾客在支付价格之前熟悉产品的好处，当顾客对新产品或服务面临很大的不确定性时，这是非常有用的。另一种定价模式允许客户按需付费，比如通过租赁计划，或者一种定价模式，即最初的产品是免费的(或以较低的价格提供)，但客户为服务付费。

Another example is the “freemium”model, where the base product is free, but additional features or capacity have a price.

另一个例子是“免费增值”模式，即基础产品是免费的，但附加功能或容量需要付费。

• A pricing model where a base product or service is offered for free, but a premium is charged for additional features or service. 免费提供基本产品或服务，但对附加功能或服务收取额外费用的定价模式。

Typical Pricing Strategies for Innovations

Three pricing strategies are summarized as follows:

• Market skimming strategy(high initial prices) 市场撇脂策略(高初始价格)
  • Signals market that innovation is significant 向市场表明创新的重要性
  • Recoup development expenses quickly (assuming there’s demand) 快速收回开发费用(假设有需求)
  • Attracts competitors, may slow 吸引竞争对手，可能会放慢速度
• Penetration Pricing(very low price or free) 渗透定价(非常低的价格或免费)
  • Accelerates adoption, driving up volume 加速采用，提高销量
  • Requires large production capacity be established early 要求及早建立较大的生产能力
  • Risky; may lose money on each unit in short run 风险;短期内每个单位都可能亏损
  • Common strategy when competing for dominant design 竞争主导设计时的常用策略
• Firms can manipulate customer’s perception of price 企业可以操纵顾客对价格的看法
  • Free initial trial or introductory pricing 免费初始试用或介绍性定价
  • Initial product free but pay for monthly service 初始产品免费，但支付每月服务
  • Razor and razorblade model: Platform is cheap but complements are expensive (as in video games) 剃须刀和刀片模式:平台很便宜，但配套产品很昂贵(就像电子游戏)

Distribution

Selling Direct versus Using Intermediaries 直销vs使用中间商

Firms can sell their products directly to users through their direct sales force or an online ordering system or mail-order catalog. Alternatively, firms can use intermediaries such as manufacturers’ representatives,wholesalers, and retailers.

公司可以通过直销队伍或在线订购系统或邮购目录直接向用户销售产品。或者，公司可以使用中间商，如制造商代表、批发商和零售商。

Selling direct

直销：制造商或生产商直接向消费者销售产品或服务的销售模式。

• Gives firm great control over selling process, price and service 使公司对销售过程、价格和服务有很大的控制权
• Can be expensive and/or impractical 是否昂贵和/或不切实际

Intermediaries may include:

中间商包括:

• Manufacturers’ representatives: independent agents that may promote and sell the product lines of one or a few manufacturers. 制造商代表:可以推广和销售一个或几个制造商的产品线的独立代理人。
  • Useful for direct selling when it’s impractical for manufacturer to have own direct sales force for all markets. 当制造商在所有市场都拥有自己的直销队伍是不切实际的时候，这对直销很有用。
• Wholesalers: firms that buy manufacturer’s products in bulk then resell them (typically in smaller, more diverse bundles) 批发商:批量购买制造商产品然后转售的公司(通常以更小、更多样化的捆绑销售)
  • Provide bulk breaking and carry inventory. 提供散装拆装和搬运库存。
  • Handles transactions with retailers and provides transportation. 处理与零售商的交易并提供运输服务。
• Retailers: firms that sell goods to public 零售商:向公众销售商品的公司
  • Provide convenience for customers 为客户提供便利
  • Enable on-site examination and service 能够进行现场检查和服务
• Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs): 原始设备制造商(oem):
  • A company that buys products (or components) from other manufacturers and assembles them or customizes them and sells under its own brand name. E.g., Dell Computer 从其他制造商那里购买产品(或部件)并进行组装或定制并以自己的品牌销售的公司。例如，戴尔电脑公司
    • Aggregates components from multiple manufacturers 聚合来自多个制造商的组件
    • Provides single point-of-contact and service for customer 为客户提供单点接触和服务

In some industries, information technology has enabled disintermediation or reconfiguration of intermediaries.

在某些行业中，信息技术使中介机构的去中介化或重新配置成为可能。

• E.g., online investing enables customers to bypass brokers; online bookselling requires retailer to provide delivery services. 例如，在线投资使客户能够绕过经纪人;网上图书销售需要零售商提供送货服务。

Factors for Determining Types of Intermediaries 确定中介人类型的因素

These factors help determine whether and what types of intermediaries the firm should use:

这些因素有助于决定公司是否应该以及应该使用什么类型的中介机构:

1. How does the new product fit with the distribution requirements of firm’s existing product lines? 新产品如何适应公司现有产品线的分销要求?
2. How numerous and dispersed are customers, and how much product education or service will they require? Is prepurchasetrial necessary? Is installation or customization required? 客户的数量和分布有多分散?他们需要多少产品教育或服务?预购是必要的吗?是否需要安装或定制?
3. How are competing products or substitutes sold? 竞争产品或替代品是如何销售的?

Strategies for Accelerating Distribution 加快配送的策略

When the industry is likely to select a single technology as the dominant design, it can be very important to deploy the technology rapidly.

当行业可能选择单一技术作为主导设计时，快速部署该技术可能非常重要。

Rapid deployment enables the technology to build a large installed base and encourages the developers of complementary goods to support the technology platform.

快速部署使该技术能够建立一个庞大的安装基础，并鼓励互补产品的开发人员支持该技术平台。

As the technology is adopted, producer and user experience can be used to improve the technology, and producer costs should also decrease due to learning effects and economies of scale.

随着技术的采用，生产者和用户体验可以用来改进技术，生产者成本也会因为学习效应和规模经济而降低。

The firm can use a variety of strategies to accelerate distribution, such as forging alliances with distributors, creating bundling relationships, sponsoring or contracting with large customer groups, and providing sales guarantees.

公司可以使用各种策略来加速分销，例如与分销商建立联盟，建立捆绑关系，赞助或与大型客户群体签订合同，以及提供销售保证。

所以有这四种strategies

• Alliances with distributors 经销商联盟
  • Providing distributor with stake in product’s success or exclusivity contract can motivate them to promote more. 向经销商提供产品成功的股份或排他性合同可以激励他们推广更多的产品。
• Bundling relationships 捆绑的关系
  • Sell in tandem with product already in wide use. 与已广泛使用的产品配套销售。
• Contracts and sponsorship 合约及赞助
  • Provide price discounts, special service contracts or advertising assistance to distributors, complementary goods providers or large and influential end users. 为经销商、补品供应商或大型有影响力的终端用户提供价格折扣、特殊服务合同或广告协助。
• Guarantees and consignment 担保和托运
  • Reduces risk to intermediaries and complements providers. 降低了中介机构的风险，并补充了提供者。

Marketing

Major marketing methods are focus on

• Advertising
• Promotions 促销
• Publicity and Public Relations 实用宣传与公共关系

The marketing strategy for a technological innovation must consider both the nature of the target market and the nature of the innovation.

技术创新的营销策略既要考虑目标市场的性质，又要考虑创新的性质。

• For example, is the target market composed primarily of large industrial users or individual consumers? 例如，目标市场主要是由大型工业用户还是个人消费者组成?
• Is the innovation likely to appeal only to technophiles or to the mass market? 这项创新可能只会吸引技术爱好者还是大众市场?
• Are the benefits of the technology readily apparent, or will they require considerable customer education? 这项技术的好处是显而易见的，还是需要大量的客户教育?
• Will customers respond more to detailed technical content or eye-catching brand images? 客户会对详细的技术内容或醒目的品牌形象更有反应吗?
• Can the marketer alleviate customer uncertainty about the innovation? 营销人员能否减轻顾客对创新的不确定性?

Advertising

Requires effective message

需要有效的信息

Requires media that conveys message to appropriate target market

需要向合适的目标市场传达信息的媒体

• Varies in match to audience, richness, reach, and cost. 根据用户、丰富程度、覆盖范围和成本而有所不同。

Must strike appropriate balance between entertainment or aesthetics (to make memorable) versus information content (to make useful)

必须在娱乐或美学(使人难忘)与信息内容(使人有用)之间取得适当的平衡。

Advantages and Disadvantages of Major Advertising Media

Promotions

Temporary selling tactics that include:

临时销售策略包括:

• Samples or free trial 样品或免费试用
• Cash rebates after purchase 购货后现金返还
• Including an additional product (a “premium”) with purchase 包括一个额外的产品(“溢价”)购买
• Incentives for repeat purchase 鼓励重复购买
• Sales bonuses to distributor or retailer sales representatives 经销商或零售商销售代表的销售奖金
• Cross promotions between two or more non-competing products to increase pulling power 在两个或多个非竞争产品之间进行交叉促销，以增加吸引力
• Point-of-purchase displays to demonstrate the product’s features 购买点显示，以展示产品的功能

Publicity and Public Relations

Attempt to generate free publicity and word-of-mouth (e.g., mention in articles, television programs, etc.)

试图产生免费的宣传和口碑(例如，在文章、电视节目等中提及)

Produce own internally generated publications

制作自己的内部出版物

Sponsor special events

赞助特别活动

Tailoring the Marketing Plan to Intended Adopters 为目标用户量身定制营销计划

As described in Chapter Three, innovations tend to diffuse through the population in an s-shape pattern whereby adoption is initially slow because the technology is unfamiliar; it then accelerates as the technology becomes better understood and utilized by the mass market, and eventually the market is saturated so the rate of new adoptions declines.

如第三章所述，创新倾向于以s形模式在人群中扩散，由于技术不熟悉，采用最初很慢;然后，随着技术被大众市场更好地理解和利用，它会加速，最终市场饱和，新采用的速度就会下降。

These stages of adoption have been related to the adopter categories of innovators (in the very early stages); followed by early adopters, which cause adoption to accelerate; then the early majority and late majority as the innovation penetrates the mass market; and finally the laggardsas the innovation approaches saturation.

这些采用阶段与创新者的采用者类别有关(在非常早期的阶段);紧随其后的是早期采用者，这会加速采用;然后随着创新进入大众市场，出现早期多数和晚期多数;最后，落后者的创新接近饱和。

The characteristics of these groups make them responsive to different marketing strategies.

这些群体的特点使他们对不同的营销策略做出反应。

• Innovators and Early Adopters respond to marketing that offers significant technical content and emphasizes leading-edge nature of product. 创新者和早期采用者对提供重要技术内容和强调产品前沿性质的营销做出反应。
  • Need media with high content and selective reach 需要高内容和选择性覆盖的媒体
• Early Majority responds to marketing emphasizing product’s completeness, ease o fuse, consistency with customer’s life, and legitimacy. 早期多数人对市场营销的反应是强调产品的完整性、易于融合、与客户生活的一致性以及合法性。
  • Need media with high reach and high credibility 需要高影响力、高可信度的媒体
• Late Majority and Laggards respond to marketing emphasizing reliability, simplicity, and cost-effectiveness. 后期多数和落后者对强调可靠性、简单性和成本效益的营销做出反应。
  • Need media with high reach, high credibility, but low cost. 需要高影响力、高可信度、低成本的媒体。

Firms often find it is difficult to make the transition between successfully selling to early adopters versus the early majority. While early adopters may be enthusiastic about the innovation’s technological features, the early majority may find the product too complex, expensive, or uncertain. This can result in a chasm in the product’s diffusion curve: Sales drop off because the early adopter market is saturated and the early majority market is not yet ready to buy

公司经常发现很难在成功销售给早期采用者和早期大多数人之间进行转换。虽然早期采用者可能对创新的技术特性充满热情，但早期的大多数人可能会发现产品过于复杂、昂贵或不确定。这可能会导致产品的扩散曲线出现裂缝:由于早期采用者市场已经饱和，而早期大众市场尚未准备好购买，因此销量下降

• 

The company must simultaneously weather a period of diminished sales while scaling up its production capacity and improving efficiency to target the mass market.

该公司必须同时度过一段销售下滑的时期，同时扩大产能，提高效率，以瞄准大众市场。

Using Marketing to Shape Perceptions and Expectations 利用市场营销塑造认知和期望

As described in Chapter Four, when distributors and customers are assessing the value of a technological innovation, they are swayed not only by evidence of the innovation’s actual value, but also by their perception of the innovation’s value and their expectations for its value in the future. Advertising, promotions, and publicity can play a key role in influencing the market’s perceptions and expectations about the size of the installed base and the availability of complementary goods.

正如第四章所述，当分销商和客户评估技术创新的价值时，他们不仅受到创新的实际价值的影响，还受到他们对创新价值的感知和未来价值的预期的影响。广告、促销和宣传可在影响市场对安装基数大小和补充商品供应的看法和期望方面发挥关键作用。

Preannouncements can generate excitement about a product before its release, while press releases extolling forecasted sales can convince customers and distributors that the product’s installed base will increase rapidly.

预告可以在产品发布前引起人们对产品的兴奋，而颂扬销售预测的新闻稿可以让客户和分销商相信产品的安装基础将迅速增加。

The firm can also shape expectations about the future of the technology by signaling the market (including distributors, end users, manufacturers of complementary goods, and perhaps even other potential contenders for the new standard) that this is a battle it intends to win and is capable of winning. The firm’s reputation may create a signal about its likelihood of success. Firms may also use credible commitments such as major fixed capital investments and guarantees to convince stakeholders that the firm has what it takes to challenge the incumbents.

该公司还可以通过向市场(包括分销商、最终用户、互补产品的制造商，甚至可能是其他新标准的潜在竞争者)发出信号，表明这是一场它有意并有能力获胜的战斗，从而塑造对该技术未来的预期。公司的声誉可能会产生一个信号，表明其成功的可能性。企业也可以使用可信的承诺，如重大固定资本投资和担保，以说服股东，该公司有能力挑战现有企业。

Perceptions and expectations of value can be as important as actual value. To influence them, a firm can use:

对价值的感知和期望与实际价值一样重要。为了影响他们，公司可以使用:

• Preannouncements and press releases 预告和新闻发布
  • Can build “mind share” in advance of actual market share 能否在实际市场份额之前建立“心灵份额”
  • Can forestall purchases of competitors’ products 可以预先阻止购买竞争对手的产品
• Reputation 名誉
  • Provides signal to market of likelihood of success 向市场提供成功可能性的信号
• Credible commitments 可信承诺：指在经济、政治或社会关系中，一方对另一方做出的具有可信度和可靠性的承诺。
  • Substantial irreversible investments can convince market of firm’s confidence and determination 大量的不可逆投资可以使市场相信企业的信心和决心

C13 Summary

A firm can use its launch timing strategy to take advantage of business cycle or seasonal effects, to influence its positioning vis-à-vis competitors, and to ensure that production capacity and complementary goods are sufficiently available at time of launch.

公司可以利用其发布时间策略利用商业周期或季节效应，影响其相对于竞争对手的定位，并确保在发布时有足够的生产能力和补充产品。

The launch timing decision must also consider the need to harvest cash flows from existing product generations versus the advantages of willingly cannibalizing existing products to preempt competitors.

发布时间的决定还必须考虑从现有产品中获取现金流的需求，以及心甘情愿地蚕食现有产品以抢占竞争对手的优势。

Successful deployment requires striking a careful balance between making a system open enough to attract complementary goods providers (and/or other producers if that is desirable) and protected enough to ensure that product quality, margins, and compatibility can be sustained.

成功的部署需要在使系统足够开放以吸引互补产品提供者(和/或其他生产者，如果需要的话)和足够保护以确保产品质量、利润和兼容性能够维持之间取得谨慎的平衡。

Common pricing strategies for technological innovations include market skimming and penetration pricing. While the first attempts to maximize margins earned on early sales of the product, the second attempts to maximize market share. Pricing strategies should consider the firm’s ability to earn profits from sales of complementary goods or services—if profits from complements are expected to be high, lower prices on the platform technology may be warranted.

技术创新的常见定价策略包括市场撇脂定价和渗透定价。前者试图最大化产品早期销售的利润，后者试图最大化市场份额。定价策略应该考虑公司从互补产品或服务的销售中赚取利润的能力——如果互补产品的利润预期很高，那么平台技术的低价格可能是有保证的。

Firms can manipulate the customer’s perception of the product’s price (and the timing of cash flows) through the timing of when the price is paid.

企业可以通过支付价格的时机来操纵顾客对产品价格的感知(以及现金流的时机)。

Intermediaries provide a number of valuable roles in the supply chain, including breaking bulk, transporting, carrying inventory, providing selling services, and managing customer transactions.

中间商在供应链中提供了许多有价值的角色，包括拆货、运输、携带库存、提供销售服务和管理客户交易。

Sometimes a firm can accelerate distribution of its innovation by forging relationships with distributors, bundling the good with others that have a wider installed base, sponsoring large customer groups, or providing sales guarantees to distributors or complements producers.

有时，一家公司可以通过与分销商建立关系、将产品与拥有更广泛安装基础的其他公司捆绑销售、赞助大型客户群、或向分销商提供销售保证或补充生产商，来加速其创新产品的分销。

Marketing methods vary in attributes such as cost, reach, information content, duration of exposure, flexibility of message, and ability to target particular segments of the market. When designing the marketing plan, the firm must take into account both the nature of the innovation (e.g., Is it complex? Are benefits easy to observe?) and the nature of the customer (e.g., Does the customer require in-depth technical detail? Is the customer likely to be influenced by brand images and/or reputation? How much uncertainty is the customer likely to tolerate?)

营销方法的属性各不相同，如成本、覆盖范围、信息内容、曝光时间、信息的灵活性以及针对特定细分市场的能力。在设计营销计划时，公司必须考虑到创新的性质(例如，它复杂吗?利益是否容易观察?)和客户的性质(例如，客户是否需要深入的技术细节?顾客是否容易受到品牌形象和/或声誉的影响?客户可能容忍多少不确定性?)

Marketing strategies can influence the market’s perception of how widely used the product is or will be, and thus can influence the behavior of customers, distributors, and complementary goods producers. Preannouncements, the firm’s reputation, and credible commitments can all influence the market’s assessment of the product’s likelihood of success.

营销策略可以影响市场对产品使用范围的认知，从而影响顾客、分销商和互补产品生产商的行为。预先发布的公告、公司的声誉和可信的承诺都会影响市场对产品成功可能性的评估。