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本例采用几个无监督学习技术,从股票的历史报价变异里提取股票市场结构。这里,我们使用的数量是每日的报价变异。
我们使用稀疏的可逆协方差估计寻找哪些报价是条件相关的,即,给定其它报价下,它们是相关的。特别地,稀疏的可逆协方差估计给出了一个图,这个图实际上是一个报价的连接表。对于每一个标记(即报价),与之连接的标记对解释它的波动情况是有用的。
我们使用聚类的方法将相似的报价分到一起。具体地,我们使用AP聚类法(Affinity propagation Clustering). AP不要求各类大小相等,而且能根据数据自动确定类数。
聚类与图的区别在于,图反映了变量间的条件关系,而聚类反映了边际属性,即,被聚在一起的变量对完全的股票市场有相似的影响。
我们在一个2D图里同时输出3个模型,图中的节点代表股票,边代表:
类标签被用来定义节点的颜色
稀疏的协方差模型被用来表示节点力
2D嵌入被用来表示节点的位置
这个例子涉及大量的可视化代码,因为可视化对于图形表示是重要的。挑战之一是如何定位标签的位置,使重叠最少,这样图形更清楚可见。为此,我们沿着每个轴的最近邻方向使用一个启发式的方法。
首先,加载必需的模块和函数库。
from __future__ import print_function
# Author: Gael Varoquaux [email protected]
# License: BSD 3 clause
import sys
from datetime import datetime
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from matplotlib.collections import LineCollection
import pandas as pd
from sklearn import cluster, covariance, manifold
print(__doc__)
本例使用的数据来自2003年——2008年的股票市场历史资料。这种历史数据能够从quandl.com
,
alphavantage.co
这样的API获得。我们将获得的数据定义成一个数组对象,定义股票变异为收盘价与开盘价的差。
# The data is from 2003 - 2008. This is reasonably calm: (not too long ago so
# that we get high-tech firms, and before the 2008 crash). This kind of
# historical data can be obtained for from APIs like the quandl.com and
# alphavantage.co ones.
start_date = datetime(2003, 1, 1).date()
end_date = datetime(2008, 1, 1).date()
symbol_dict = {
'TOT': 'Total',
'XOM': 'Exxon',
'CVX': 'Chevron',
'COP': 'ConocoPhillips',
'VLO': 'Valero Energy',
'MSFT': 'Microsoft',
'IBM': 'IBM',
'TWX': 'Time Warner',
'CMCSA': 'Comcast',
'CVC': 'Cablevision',
'YHOO': 'Yahoo',
'DELL': 'Dell',
'HPQ': 'HP',
'AMZN': 'Amazon',
'TM': 'Toyota',
'CAJ': 'Canon',
'SNE': 'Sony',
'F': 'Ford',
'HMC': 'Honda',
'NAV': 'Navistar',
'NOC': 'Northrop Grumman',
'BA': 'Boeing',
'KO': 'Coca Cola',
'MMM': '3M',
'MCD': 'McDonald\'s',
'PEP': 'Pepsi',
'K': 'Kellogg',
'UN': 'Unilever',
'MAR': 'Marriott',
'PG': 'Procter Gamble',
'CL': 'Colgate-Palmolive',
'GE': 'General Electrics',
'WFC': 'Wells Fargo',
'JPM': 'JPMorgan Chase',
'AIG': 'AIG',
'AXP': 'American express',
'BAC': 'Bank of America',
'GS': 'Goldman Sachs',
'AAPL': 'Apple',
'SAP': 'SAP',
'CSCO': 'Cisco',
'TXN': 'Texas Instruments',
'XRX': 'Xerox',
'WMT': 'Wal-Mart',
'HD': 'Home Depot',
'GSK': 'GlaxoSmithKline',
'PFE': 'Pfizer',
'SNY': 'Sanofi-Aventis',
'NVS': 'Novartis',
'KMB': 'Kimberly-Clark',
'R': 'Ryder',
'GD': 'General Dynamics',
'RTN': 'Raytheon',
'CVS': 'CVS',
'CAT': 'Caterpillar',
'DD': 'DuPont de Nemours'}
symbols, names = np.array(sorted(symbol_dict.items())).T
quotes = []
for symbol in symbols:
print('Fetching quote history for %r' % symbol, file=sys.stderr)
url = ('https://raw.githubusercontent.com/scikit-learn/examples-data/'
'master/financial-data/{}.csv')
quotes.append(pd.read_csv(url.format(symbol)))
close_prices = np.vstack([q['close'] for q in quotes])
open_prices = np.vstack([q['open'] for q in quotes])
# The daily variations of the quotes are what carry most information
variation = close_prices - open_prices
edge_model = covariance.GraphicalLassoCV(cv=5)
# standardize the time series: using correlations rather than covariance
# is more efficient for structure recovery
X = variation.copy().T
X /= X.std(axis=0)
edge_model.fit(X)
_, labels = cluster.affinity_propagation(edge_model.covariance_)
n_labels = labels.max()
for i in range(n_labels + 1):
print('Cluster %i: %s' % ((i + 1), ', '.join(names[labels == i])))
# We use a dense eigen_solver to achieve reproducibility (arpack is
# initiated with random vectors that we don't control). In addition, we
# use a large number of neighbors to capture the large-scale structure.
node_position_model = manifold.LocallyLinearEmbedding(
n_components=2, eigen_solver='dense', n_neighbors=6)
embedding = node_position_model.fit_transform(X.T).T
plt.figure(1, facecolor='w', figsize=(10, 8))
plt.clf()
ax = plt.axes([0., 0., 1., 1.])
plt.axis('off')
# Display a graph of the partial correlations
partial_correlations = edge_model.precision_.copy()
d = 1 / np.sqrt(np.diag(partial_correlations))
partial_correlations *= d
partial_correlations *= d[:, np.newaxis]
non_zero = (np.abs(np.triu(partial_correlations, k=1)) > 0.02)
# Plot the nodes using the coordinates of our embedding
plt.scatter(embedding[0], embedding[1], s=100 * d ** 2, c=labels,
cmap=plt.cm.nipy_spectral)
# Plot the edges
start_idx, end_idx = np.where(non_zero)
# a sequence of (*line0*, *line1*, *line2*), where::
# linen = (x0, y0), (x1, y1), ... (xm, ym)
segments = [[embedding[:, start], embedding[:, stop]]
for start, stop in zip(start_idx, end_idx)]
values = np.abs(partial_correlations[non_zero])
lc = LineCollection(segments,
zorder=0, cmap=plt.cm.hot_r,
norm=plt.Normalize(0, .7 * values.max()))
lc.set_array(values)
lc.set_linewidths(15 * values)
ax.add_collection(lc)
# Add a label to each node. The challenge here is that we want to
# position the labels to avoid overlap with other labels
for index, (name, label, (x, y)) in enumerate(
zip(names, labels, embedding.T)):
dx = x - embedding[0]
dx[index] = 1
dy = y - embedding[1]
dy[index] = 1
this_dx = dx[np.argmin(np.abs(dy))]
this_dy = dy[np.argmin(np.abs(dx))]
if this_dx > 0:
horizontalalignment = 'left'
x = x + .002
else:
horizontalalignment = 'right'
x = x - .002
if this_dy > 0:
verticalalignment = 'bottom'
y = y + .002
else:
verticalalignment = 'top'
y = y - .002
plt.text(x, y, name, size=10,
horizontalalignment=horizontalalignment,
verticalalignment=verticalalignment,
bbox=dict(facecolor='w',
edgecolor=plt.cm.nipy_spectral(label / float(n_labels)),
alpha=.6))
plt.xlim(embedding[0].min() - .15 * embedding[0].ptp(),
embedding[0].max() + .10 * embedding[0].ptp(),)
plt.ylim(embedding[1].min() - .03 * embedding[1].ptp(),
embedding[1].max() + .03 * embedding[1].ptp())
plt.show()
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