Introduction
research forms：
differences
situation specfic activation of cultural schemata
psychological proce
Goals of this review
recent work
combination:cul-psy,psy-cul
resolve discrepencies
Psychological foundations of culture
definition of culture:shared norms and cognitions,and their meanings
key questions:
How do beliefs and behaviors become normative?
How do different types of norms coalesce to the point that a recognizable “culture” emerges?
Why do cultural norms have certain content rather than other content?
Why are some normative beliefs and behaviors successfully transmitted to new cultural members while others fail to persist over time?
Evoltionary Perspectives on Culture(why culture emerges?)
adapation:being solitude is dangerous
better at solving——culture norms
Psychological needs and the creation of culture(why culture emerges?)
1.Terror management theory(Greenberg, Solomon)—-psychology buffer
immortality
symbolic immortality - regious beliefs about post-death
norms —-valuable person
Hypothesis
feelings of self-worth buffer against exitential anxiety
awareness of mortality leads to defend for one’s own culture
derogate alternative culture
punish violators
stick to cultural symbols
2.Epistemic Need:Cognitve closure
memory
attention
Interpersonal Communications and the creation of culture(why some cultural norms are more likely than others to arise?)
Dynamic Social impact theory
interpersonal communicaton
proximity
influence
communicable beliefs or behaviors
Complementarity of different perspectives on the origins of culture
psychological needs may influence communicaton processes
evolution: affective content——urban lengends
epistem needs——attention and memory
Cultural foundations of psychology
conceptual distinctions:independentvs.interdependent, individualism vs. collectivism
demographics——region ——culture
Attending, perceiving, thinking, and attribution
1.intellectural traditions:holistic, dialectical vs.analytical. linear
object vs.context,covariation detection, change direction, tolerance of imcompatible cognitions, surprising intensity, belief bias, experienced-based knowledge to solve problems
2.attribution
internal factors vs. external factors
awareness of the influence of the situation
prediction base on trait-relevant behaviors
3.social inferences
relational information vs. individual information
note!!
deviate only when the relevance of intellectual paradigms are salient
constructing selfhood
construction of self-concepts:
Western self——self-contained and autonomous
Eastern self ——interdependent ,group-related statements
self-regulation
Socratic tradition:self-genersated knowledge,self-directed learning,dialogical extrange
Confucian tradition:self-improvement,moral self-transformation.prosocial goals
West:success foregone events >>failure-avoidance events, internal factor ——success，self-esteem, sucess feedback more motivating
East:collective good ——devaluation of distinctive strength
self-criticism,failure avoidance, self-esteem, failure feedback more motivating
egocentric biases:self-enhancement, unrealistic optimism, self-affirmation, self-critism bias,
cultural construction of agency
personal/disjoint agency:seperate or distinct from actions of others
collective/conjoint agency:other-motivateed, value relationship,
coexists!!
cultural tradeoff
East: low self-enhancement?
——different foundation of self-worth:positive feeling of being a valued member in a group, and feeling of being connected
sources of selef-worth and life satisfaction
1.routes to self-worth:
social standing of group, group’s appraisal of the self, group failure is ego-threatening
2.life satisfaction
personal agency and personal affect
feelings of connectedness
acccessiblity
personal influence —-efficacy
adjustment—-relatedness
Connecting to the social world
take the persoective of partner, attune, sensitive to the common knowledge in context
group opinions , in-group benefits, group harmony(ads,choice-making,strategies to resolve conflicts)
children
Contextual activation and cultural frame switching
culture coexists
1.cultural paradigms
applicability:highlightened or not?
epstemic value:consensually validated,conventionalizes solutions,solver’s lacking
to justify, need for cognitve closure, cognitively busy, time pressure
ethnocultural identities
2.context
priming
I think of myself not as a unified cultural being but as a communion of different cultural beings. Due to the fact that I have spent time in different cultural enviroments I have developed several cultural identities that diverge and converge according to the need of the moment"(Sparrow,2000)
bicultual individuals (priming— attribution,dependent measures)
mediator:multicultural identities management
complemental—assimilation
opposite—constrastive
threatens to fixed model of culture——dynamic model
The predicted group differences emerge in a concrete situation only when cultural paradigms are relevant and useful in that situation, and disappear when they are not.
cultural processes
Dynamic intetplay between psychology and culture
two strategies
cultural paradigms —-communication(manner, content)—-future representation of knowledge at cognitive and cultural level
longitudinal consequences of interpersonal interaction on both individual and cultural-level outcomes
Future Directions
It is becoming fashionable in empirical work to "unpack" culture, and thus to attempt to gain a better handle on why, precisely, the cultural differences exist.
1.culturally based psychological processes
children—-adults
more cultural paradigms & inquiries
high school-educated vs, college educated( Markus,2003)
2.Broad coverage of world cultures
3.globalization, how to learn a culture?
private culture / public culture /culture in mind
4.society
5.dynamic relationships between culture and psychology
6.differences and universals;
,