尽管特征点法在视觉里程计中占
据主流地位,研究者们认识到它至少有以下几个缺点:
使用特征点法估计相机运动时,我们把特征点看作固定在三维空间的不动点。根据它们在相机中的投影位置,通过最小化重投影误差 (Reprojection error)来优化相机运动。在这个过程中,我们需要精确地知道空间点在两个相机中投影后的像素位置——这也就是我们为何要对特征进行匹配或跟踪的理由。同时,我们也知道,计算、匹配特征需要付出大量的计算量。相对的,在直接法中,我们并不需要知道点与点之间之间的对应关系,而是通过最小化光度误差(Photometric error)来求得它们。
光流是一种描述像素随着时间,在图像之间运动的方法,如图 8-1 所示。随着时间的经过,同一个像素会在图像中运动,而我们希望追踪它的运动过程。计算部分像素运动的称为稀疏光流,计算所有像素的称为稠密光流。稀疏光流以 Lucas-Kanade 光流为代表,并可以在 SLAM 中用于跟踪特征点位置。
在 LK 光流中,我们假设某一个窗口内的像素具有相同的运动。
THU数据集处理如果遇到报错,参考:
使用TUM的associate.py脚本报错AttributeError: ‘dict_keys‘ object has no attribute ‘remove‘
useLK.cpp
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
using namespace std;
#include
#include
#include
#include
int main( int argc, char** argv )
{
if ( argc != 2 )
{
cout<<"usage: useLK path_to_dataset"<<endl;
return 1;
}
string path_to_dataset = argv[1];
string associate_file = path_to_dataset + "/associate.txt";
ifstream fin( associate_file );
if ( !fin )
{
cerr<<"I cann't find associate.txt!"<<endl;
return 1;
}
string rgb_file, depth_file, time_rgb, time_depth;
list< cv::Point2f > keypoints; // 因为要删除跟踪失败的点,使用list
cv::Mat color, depth, last_color;
for ( int index=0; index<100; index++ )
{
fin>>time_rgb>>rgb_file>>time_depth>>depth_file;
color = cv::imread( path_to_dataset+"/"+rgb_file );
depth = cv::imread( path_to_dataset+"/"+depth_file, -1 );
if (index ==0 )
{
// 对第一帧提取FAST特征点
vector<cv::KeyPoint> kps;
cv::Ptr<cv::FastFeatureDetector> detector = cv::FastFeatureDetector::create();
detector->detect( color, kps );
for ( auto kp:kps )
keypoints.push_back( kp.pt );
last_color = color;
continue;
}
if ( color.data==nullptr || depth.data==nullptr )
continue;
// 对其他帧用LK跟踪特征点
vector<cv::Point2f> next_keypoints;
vector<cv::Point2f> prev_keypoints;
for ( auto kp:keypoints )
prev_keypoints.push_back(kp);
vector<unsigned char> status;
vector<float> error;
chrono::steady_clock::time_point t1 = chrono::steady_clock::now();
cv::calcOpticalFlowPyrLK( last_color, color, prev_keypoints, next_keypoints, status, error );
chrono::steady_clock::time_point t2 = chrono::steady_clock::now();
chrono::duration<double> time_used = chrono::duration_cast<chrono::duration<double>>( t2-t1 );
cout<<"LK Flow use time:"<<time_used.count()<<" seconds."<<endl;
// 把跟丢的点删掉
int i=0;
for ( auto iter=keypoints.begin(); iter!=keypoints.end(); i++)
{
if ( status[i] == 0 )
{
iter = keypoints.erase(iter);
continue;
}
*iter = next_keypoints[i];
iter++;
}
cout<<"tracked keypoints: "<<keypoints.size()<<endl;
if (keypoints.size() == 0)
{
cout<<"all keypoints are lost."<<endl;
break;
}
// 画出 keypoints
cv::Mat img_show = color.clone();
for ( auto kp:keypoints )
cv::circle(img_show, kp, 10, cv::Scalar(0, 240, 0), 1);
cv::imshow("corners", img_show);
cv::waitKey(0);
last_color = color;
}
return 0;
}
CMakeLIsts.txt
cmake_minimum_required( VERSION 2.8 )
project( useLK )
set( CMAKE_BUILD_TYPE Release )
find_package( OpenCV )
include_directories( ${OpenCV_INCLUDE_DIRS} )
add_executable( useLK useLK.cpp )
target_link_libraries( useLK ${OpenCV_LIBS} )
在我们上面的推导中,P 是一个已知位置的空间点,它是怎么来的呢?在 RGB-D 相机下,我们可以把任意像素反投影到三维空间,然后投影到下一个图像中。如果在单目相机中,这件事情要更为困难,因为我们还需考虑由 P 的深度带来的不确定性。详细的深度估计放到 13 讲中讨论。现在我们先来考虑简单的情况,即 P 深度已知的情况。
根据 P 的来源,我们可以把直接法进行分类:
直接法是由以下顶点和边组成的:
direct_sparse.cpp
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
using namespace std;
using namespace g2o;
/********************************************
* 本节演示了RGBD上的稀疏直接法
********************************************/
// 一次测量的值,包括一个世界坐标系下三维点与一个灰度值
struct Measurement
{
Measurement ( Eigen::Vector3d p, float g ) : pos_world ( p ), grayscale ( g ) {}
Eigen::Vector3d pos_world;
float grayscale;
};
inline Eigen::Vector3d project2Dto3D ( int x, int y, int d, float fx, float fy, float cx, float cy, float scale )
{
float zz = float ( d ) /scale;
float xx = zz* ( x-cx ) /fx;
float yy = zz* ( y-cy ) /fy;
return Eigen::Vector3d ( xx, yy, zz );
}
inline Eigen::Vector2d project3Dto2D ( float x, float y, float z, float fx, float fy, float cx, float cy )
{
float u = fx*x/z+cx;
float v = fy*y/z+cy;
return Eigen::Vector2d ( u,v );
}
// 直接法估计位姿
// 输入:测量值(空间点的灰度),新的灰度图,相机内参; 输出:相机位姿
// 返回:true为成功,false失败
bool poseEstimationDirect ( const vector<Measurement>& measurements, cv::Mat* gray, Eigen::Matrix3f& intrinsics, Eigen::Isometry3d& Tcw );
// project a 3d point into an image plane, the error is photometric error
// an unary edge with one vertex SE3Expmap (the pose of camera)
class EdgeSE3ProjectDirect: public BaseUnaryEdge< 1, double, VertexSE3Expmap>
{
public:
EIGEN_MAKE_ALIGNED_OPERATOR_NEW
EdgeSE3ProjectDirect() {}
EdgeSE3ProjectDirect ( Eigen::Vector3d point, float fx, float fy, float cx, float cy, cv::Mat* image )
: x_world_ ( point ), fx_ ( fx ), fy_ ( fy ), cx_ ( cx ), cy_ ( cy ), image_ ( image )
{}
virtual void computeError()
{
const VertexSE3Expmap* v =static_cast<const VertexSE3Expmap*> ( _vertices[0] );
Eigen::Vector3d x_local = v->estimate().map ( x_world_ );
float x = x_local[0]*fx_/x_local[2] + cx_;
float y = x_local[1]*fy_/x_local[2] + cy_;
// check x,y is in the image
if ( x-4<0 || ( x+4 ) >image_->cols || ( y-4 ) <0 || ( y+4 ) >image_->rows )
{
_error ( 0,0 ) = 0.0;
this->setLevel ( 1 );
}
else
{
_error ( 0,0 ) = getPixelValue ( x,y ) - _measurement;
}
}
// plus in manifold
virtual void linearizeOplus( )
{
if ( level() == 1 )
{
_jacobianOplusXi = Eigen::Matrix<double, 1, 6>::Zero();
return;
}
VertexSE3Expmap* vtx = static_cast<VertexSE3Expmap*> ( _vertices[0] );
Eigen::Vector3d xyz_trans = vtx->estimate().map ( x_world_ ); // q in book
double x = xyz_trans[0];
double y = xyz_trans[1];
double invz = 1.0/xyz_trans[2];
double invz_2 = invz*invz;
float u = x*fx_*invz + cx_;
float v = y*fy_*invz + cy_;
// jacobian from se3 to u,v
// NOTE that in g2o the Lie algebra is (\omega, \epsilon), where \omega is so(3) and \epsilon the translation
Eigen::Matrix<double, 2, 6> jacobian_uv_ksai;
jacobian_uv_ksai ( 0,0 ) = - x*y*invz_2 *fx_;
jacobian_uv_ksai ( 0,1 ) = ( 1+ ( x*x*invz_2 ) ) *fx_;
jacobian_uv_ksai ( 0,2 ) = - y*invz *fx_;
jacobian_uv_ksai ( 0,3 ) = invz *fx_;
jacobian_uv_ksai ( 0,4 ) = 0;
jacobian_uv_ksai ( 0,5 ) = -x*invz_2 *fx_;
jacobian_uv_ksai ( 1,0 ) = - ( 1+y*y*invz_2 ) *fy_;
jacobian_uv_ksai ( 1,1 ) = x*y*invz_2 *fy_;
jacobian_uv_ksai ( 1,2 ) = x*invz *fy_;
jacobian_uv_ksai ( 1,3 ) = 0;
jacobian_uv_ksai ( 1,4 ) = invz *fy_;
jacobian_uv_ksai ( 1,5 ) = -y*invz_2 *fy_;
Eigen::Matrix<double, 1, 2> jacobian_pixel_uv;
jacobian_pixel_uv ( 0,0 ) = ( getPixelValue ( u+1,v )-getPixelValue ( u-1,v ) ) /2;
jacobian_pixel_uv ( 0,1 ) = ( getPixelValue ( u,v+1 )-getPixelValue ( u,v-1 ) ) /2;
_jacobianOplusXi = jacobian_pixel_uv*jacobian_uv_ksai;
}
// dummy read and write functions because we don't care...
virtual bool read ( std::istream& in ) {}
virtual bool write ( std::ostream& out ) const {}
protected:
// get a gray scale value from reference image (bilinear interpolated)
inline float getPixelValue ( float x, float y )
{
uchar* data = & image_->data[ int ( y ) * image_->step + int ( x ) ];
float xx = x - floor ( x );
float yy = y - floor ( y );
return float (
( 1-xx ) * ( 1-yy ) * data[0] +
xx* ( 1-yy ) * data[1] +
( 1-xx ) *yy*data[ image_->step ] +
xx*yy*data[image_->step+1]
);
}
public:
Eigen::Vector3d x_world_; // 3D point in world frame
float cx_=0, cy_=0, fx_=0, fy_=0; // Camera intrinsics
cv::Mat* image_=nullptr; // reference image
};
int main ( int argc, char** argv )
{
if ( argc != 2 )
{
cout<<"usage: useLK path_to_dataset"<<endl;
return 1;
}
srand ( ( unsigned int ) time ( 0 ) );
string path_to_dataset = argv[1];
string associate_file = path_to_dataset + "/associate.txt";
ifstream fin ( associate_file );
string rgb_file, depth_file, time_rgb, time_depth;
cv::Mat color, depth, gray;
vector<Measurement> measurements;
// 相机内参
float cx = 325.5;
float cy = 253.5;
float fx = 518.0;
float fy = 519.0;
float depth_scale = 1000.0;
Eigen::Matrix3f K;
K<<fx,0.f,cx,0.f,fy,cy,0.f,0.f,1.0f;
Eigen::Isometry3d Tcw = Eigen::Isometry3d::Identity();
cv::Mat prev_color;
// 我们以第一个图像为参考,对后续图像和参考图像做直接法
for ( int index=0; index<10; index++ )
{
cout<<"*********** loop "<<index<<" ************"<<endl;
fin>>time_rgb>>rgb_file>>time_depth>>depth_file;
color = cv::imread ( path_to_dataset+"/"+rgb_file );
depth = cv::imread ( path_to_dataset+"/"+depth_file, -1 );
if ( color.data==nullptr || depth.data==nullptr )
continue;
cv::cvtColor ( color, gray, cv::COLOR_BGR2GRAY );
if ( index ==0 )
{
// 对第一帧提取FAST特征点
vector<cv::KeyPoint> keypoints;
cv::Ptr<cv::FastFeatureDetector> detector = cv::FastFeatureDetector::create();
detector->detect ( color, keypoints );
for ( auto kp:keypoints )
{
// 去掉邻近边缘处的点
if ( kp.pt.x < 20 || kp.pt.y < 20 || ( kp.pt.x+20 ) >color.cols || ( kp.pt.y+20 ) >color.rows )
continue;
ushort d = depth.ptr<ushort> ( cvRound ( kp.pt.y ) ) [ cvRound ( kp.pt.x ) ];
if ( d==0 )
continue;
Eigen::Vector3d p3d = project2Dto3D ( kp.pt.x, kp.pt.y, d, fx, fy, cx, cy, depth_scale );
float grayscale = float ( gray.ptr<uchar> ( cvRound ( kp.pt.y ) ) [ cvRound ( kp.pt.x ) ] );
measurements.push_back ( Measurement ( p3d, grayscale ) );
}
prev_color = color.clone();
continue;
}
// 使用直接法计算相机运动
chrono::steady_clock::time_point t1 = chrono::steady_clock::now();
poseEstimationDirect ( measurements, &gray, K, Tcw );
chrono::steady_clock::time_point t2 = chrono::steady_clock::now();
chrono::duration<double> time_used = chrono::duration_cast<chrono::duration<double>> ( t2-t1 );
cout<<"direct method costs time: "<<time_used.count() <<" seconds."<<endl;
cout<<"Tcw="<<Tcw.matrix() <<endl;
// plot the feature points
cv::Mat img_show ( color.rows*2, color.cols, CV_8UC3 );
prev_color.copyTo ( img_show ( cv::Rect ( 0,0,color.cols, color.rows ) ) );
color.copyTo ( img_show ( cv::Rect ( 0,color.rows,color.cols, color.rows ) ) );
for ( Measurement m:measurements )
{
if ( rand() > RAND_MAX/5 )
continue;
Eigen::Vector3d p = m.pos_world;
Eigen::Vector2d pixel_prev = project3Dto2D ( p ( 0,0 ), p ( 1,0 ), p ( 2,0 ), fx, fy, cx, cy );
Eigen::Vector3d p2 = Tcw*m.pos_world;
Eigen::Vector2d pixel_now = project3Dto2D ( p2 ( 0,0 ), p2 ( 1,0 ), p2 ( 2,0 ), fx, fy, cx, cy );
if ( pixel_now(0,0)<0 || pixel_now(0,0)>=color.cols || pixel_now(1,0)<0 || pixel_now(1,0)>=color.rows )
continue;
float b = 255*float ( rand() ) /RAND_MAX;
float g = 255*float ( rand() ) /RAND_MAX;
float r = 255*float ( rand() ) /RAND_MAX;
cv::circle ( img_show, cv::Point2d ( pixel_prev ( 0,0 ), pixel_prev ( 1,0 ) ), 8, cv::Scalar ( b,g,r ), 2 );
cv::circle ( img_show, cv::Point2d ( pixel_now ( 0,0 ), pixel_now ( 1,0 ) +color.rows ), 8, cv::Scalar ( b,g,r ), 2 );
cv::line ( img_show, cv::Point2d ( pixel_prev ( 0,0 ), pixel_prev ( 1,0 ) ), cv::Point2d ( pixel_now ( 0,0 ), pixel_now ( 1,0 ) +color.rows ), cv::Scalar ( b,g,r ), 1 );
}
cv::imshow ( "result", img_show );
cv::waitKey ( 0 );
}
return 0;
}
bool poseEstimationDirect ( const vector< Measurement >& measurements, cv::Mat* gray, Eigen::Matrix3f& K, Eigen::Isometry3d& Tcw )
{
/*
// 初始化g2o
typedef g2o::BlockSolver> DirectBlock; // 求解的向量是6*1的
DirectBlock::LinearSolverType* linearSolver = new g2o::LinearSolverDense< DirectBlock::PoseMatrixType > ();
DirectBlock* solver_ptr = new DirectBlock ( linearSolver );
// g2o::OptimizationAlgorithmGaussNewton* solver = new g2o::OptimizationAlgorithmGaussNewton( solver_ptr ); // G-N
g2o::OptimizationAlgorithmLevenberg* solver = new g2o::OptimizationAlgorithmLevenberg ( solver_ptr ); // L-M
g2o::SparseOptimizer optimizer;
optimizer.setAlgorithm ( solver );
optimizer.setVerbose( true );
*/
// 初始化g2o(新版本用法)
typedef g2o::BlockSolver<g2o::BlockSolverTraits<6,1>> DirectBlock; // 求解的向量是6*1的
std::unique_ptr<DirectBlock::LinearSolverType> linearSolver ( new g2o::LinearSolverDense<DirectBlock::PoseMatrixType>());
std::unique_ptr<DirectBlock> solver_ptr ( new DirectBlock ( std::move(linearSolver))); // 矩阵块求解器
g2o::OptimizationAlgorithmLevenberg* solver = new g2o::OptimizationAlgorithmLevenberg ( std::move(solver_ptr));
g2o::SparseOptimizer optimizer;
optimizer.setAlgorithm ( solver );
optimizer.setVerbose( true );
g2o::VertexSE3Expmap* pose = new g2o::VertexSE3Expmap();
pose->setEstimate ( g2o::SE3Quat ( Tcw.rotation(), Tcw.translation() ) );
pose->setId ( 0 );
optimizer.addVertex ( pose );
// 添加边
int id=1;
for ( Measurement m: measurements )
{
EdgeSE3ProjectDirect* edge = new EdgeSE3ProjectDirect (
m.pos_world,
K ( 0,0 ), K ( 1,1 ), K ( 0,2 ), K ( 1,2 ), gray
);
edge->setVertex ( 0, pose );
edge->setMeasurement ( m.grayscale );
edge->setInformation ( Eigen::Matrix<double,1,1>::Identity() );
edge->setId ( id++ );
optimizer.addEdge ( edge );
}
cout<<"edges in graph: "<<optimizer.edges().size() <<endl;
optimizer.initializeOptimization();
optimizer.optimize ( 30 );
Tcw = pose->estimate();
}
CMakeLists.txt
cmake_minimum_required( VERSION 2.8 )
project( directMethod )
set( CMAKE_BUILD_TYPE Release )
# 添加cmake模块路径
list( APPEND CMAKE_MODULE_PATH /home/ql/slamebook/lib/g2o/cmake_modules)
find_package( OpenCV )
include_directories( ${OpenCV_INCLUDE_DIRS} )
find_package( G2O )
include_directories( ${G2O_INCLUDE_DIRS} )
include_directories( "/usr/include/eigen3" )
set( G2O_LIBS
g2o_core g2o_types_sba g2o_solver_csparse g2o_stuff g2o_csparse_extension
)
add_executable( direct_sparse direct_sparse.cpp )
target_link_libraries( direct_sparse ${OpenCV_LIBS} ${G2O_LIBS} )
# add_executable( direct_semidense direct_semidense.cpp )
# target_link_libraries( direct_semidense ${OpenCV_LIBS} ${G2O_LIBS} )
最后,我们总结一下直接法的优缺点。大体来说,它的优点如下:
• 可以省去计算特征点、描述子的时间。
• 只要求有像素梯度即可,无须特征点。因此,直接法可以在特征缺失的场合下使用。比较极端的例子是只有渐变的一张图像。它可能无法提取角点类特征,但可以用直接法估计它的运动。
• 可以构建半稠密乃至稠密的地图,这是特征点法无法做到的。
另一方面,它的缺点也很明显:
• 非凸性——直接法完全依靠梯度搜索,降低目标函数来计算相机位姿。其目标函数中需要取像素点的灰度值,而图像是强烈非凸的函数。这使得优化算法容易进入极小,只在运动很小时直接法才能成功。
• 单个像素没有区分度。找一个和他像的实在太多了!——于是我们要么计算图像块,要么计算复杂的相关性。由于每个像素对改变相机运动的“意见”不一致。只能少数服从多数,以数量代替质量。
• 灰度值不变是很强的假设。如果相机是自动曝光的,当它调整曝光参数时,会使得图像整体变亮或变暗。光照变化时亦会出现这种情况。特征点法对光照具有一定的容忍性,而直接法由于计算灰度间的差异,整体灰度变化会破坏灰度不变假设,使算法失败。针对这一点,目前的直接法开始使用更细致的光度模型标定相机,以便在曝光时间变化时也能让直接法工作。