Prompts are a foundational procedure widely used in the field of Applied Behavior Analysis; however, prompts are used by everyone, everyday across many individuals ranging in age, cognitive abilities and developmental levels. Simply put, prompts are a way of teaching a new skill to someone, with the ultimate goal for the skill to be performed independently one day. Whether you are learning codes to a new computer software, learning to brush your teeth, or learning how to use a prompt hierarchy, each of these skills require teaching using prompts that are individualized to the skill being taught and the individual who is learning the task. This is no different for children and adults with developmental or cognitive disabilities who require additional support when learning new social, communication and daily living skills that will help them to function independently and successfully across the day. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate the continuum of the prompt hierarchy and provide examples of how it can be utilized creatively across many different skills.
在应用行为分析领域，提示是一个被广泛使用的程序; 然而，每个人每天都在使用提示，涉及许多人的年龄、认知能力和发展水平。简单地说，提示是一种向某人传授新技能的方式，其最终目标是有朝一日这项技能能够独立完成。无论你是在学习一个新的计算机软件的代码，学习刷牙，还是学习如何使用一个提示层次，这些技能都需要使用提示教学，这些提示是针对所教授的技能和正在学习这项任务的个人而言的。这对有发育或认知障碍的儿童和成年人来说没有什么不同，他们在学习新的社交、沟通和日常生活技能时需要额外的支持，这些技能将帮助他们在一天中独立和成功地使用。本文的目的是演示提示层次结构的连续性，并提供示例说明如何在许多不同的技能之间创造性地使用它。
Benefits of Learning with Prompts
使用提示进行学习的好处
Correct responding through the use of prompts, amplifies access to reinforcement for the desired response, which strengthens the target behavior in the presence of the Discriminative Stimulus (i.e., Sd, the instruction, environmental cue etc.). In other words, prompts are incredibly helpful when teaching a skill because it allows the learner to know exactly what response is required and what the benefit will be (e.g., break, praise, snack). Errors can result in a lower rate of reinforcement for each attempt which may further impede learning (Myrna, Weiss, Bancroft, & Ahearn, 2008). Think about a time when you were learning a new or extremely challenging skill. What level of support did you require to be successful? How was the support, or prompts, provided and which did you find most helpful when learning the task? Now imagine you the task instruction was provided without any guidance or instruction. Let’s pretend you tried multiple different avenues to teach yourself this skill but failed at each attempt. Most would agree this would cause a great deal of frustration and significantly interfere with the motivation to learn the task, and potentially future tasks as well. Using prompting hierarchies when working with individuals diagnosed with cognitive or other developmental disabilities are instrumental for the learner. Research has noted how prompts reduce frustration and provide assistance when learning a new or challenging task. Minimizing errors may also reduce the likelihood of problem behavior during instruction (Weeks & Gaylord-Ross, 1981). The likelihood of success is dependent on effective teaching strategies throughout the learning process, one of the most valuable being prompts.
通过使用提示正确回应，放大获得强化的途径，以期望的反应，这加强了目标行为的存在区辨刺激(即，Sd，指令，环境线索等)。换句话说，在教授一项技能时，提示是非常有用的，因为它能让学习者准确地知道需要什么样的反应，以及这样做的好处是什么(例如，休息、表扬、点心)。错误可能导致每次尝试的强化率降低，这可能进一步阻碍学习(Myrna，Weiss，Bancroft，& Ahearn，2008)。回想一下你正在学习一项新的或极具挑战性的技能的时候。你需要什么程度的支持才能成功？在学习任务的过程中，这些支持或提示是如何提供的，你觉得哪些对你最有帮助？现在想象一下，任务指令是在没有任何指导或指令的情况下提供的。让我们假设你尝试了多种不同的途径来教自己这种技能，但每次都失败了。大多数人都会同意这会导致大量的挫折感，并严重干扰学习任务的动机，以及潜在的未来任务。当与被诊断为认知或其他发育障碍的个体一起工作时，使用提示等级对学习者是有帮助的。研究指出，在学习一项新的或具有挑战性的任务时，提示如何减少挫折感并提供帮助。尽量减少错误也可以减少在教学过程中出现问题行为的可能性(Weeks & Gaylord-Ross，1981)。成功的可能性取决于整个学习过程中有效的教学策略，这是提示最具价值的地方。
Prompting Procedure Defined
提示程序的定义
Prompts are tools to assist with the acquisition of new skills or aid with increasing independence of skills inconsistently demonstrated. Prompts can be considered antecedent strategies or preventative strategies, which reduce the likelihood of incorrect responses and increase the frequency of the desired response. An example of the three-term-contingency is asking the learner to wave to a friend (Sd), the learner waves (response), and then is provided with praise as a consequence (reinforcer). However, if the student cannot consistently and independently respond to the instruction wave, a prompt (e.g. modeling the action of waving) can be used to evoke correct responding (Cengher, Budd, Farrell, & Fienup, 2017). The below chart demonstrates the three-term contingency, Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence (ABC) in relation to introduction of the prompt.
提示是帮助获得新技能或帮助提高技能独立性的工具。提示可以被认为是前置策略或预防策略，这些策略降低了不正确反应的可能性，并增加了所需反应的频率。三期后效关联的一个例子是要求学习者向朋友挥手(Sd) ，学习者挥手(回应) ，然后作为结果给予表扬(强化)。然而，如果学生不能一致和独立地响应指令，一个提示(例如模拟挥手的动作)可以用来唤起正确的响应(Cengher，Budd，Farrell，& Fienup，2017)。下面的图表显示了三期后效关联，前事，行为，后果(ABC)关系到引入提示。
Types of Prompts
提示的类型
Stimulus Prompts
刺激辅助
Prompts, when coupled with the discriminative stimuli (i.e., the cue or instruction), are supportive antecedent strategies which encourage learning, promote independence and build confidence that empowers learners. There are many different types of prompts separated into two main categories, stimulus- and response-prompting. Stimulus prompts are implemented when the presentation of the instruction or cue is manipulated and will occur concurrently within the stimuli. Some examples include exaggeration of the size or color, modifying the location, or even placing highlights or stickers on the stimuli itself to provide the prompt within the stimuli. An example of this would be if a learner is being taught how to use a timer. Placing a green sticker on the minute button and a red sticker on the start/stop button will prompt the learner to push the correct button when instructed to set the timer. Stimulus prompts are primarily presented within the prompt subgroup of visual prompts, including positional, pictures, and some textual prompts.
提示与区辨刺激(即线索或指令)结合在一起，是鼓励学习、促进独立性和建立自信的支持性先行策略，它赋予学习者力量。提示有许多不同的类型，分为两大类，刺激辅助和反应辅助。刺激辅助是在指令或线索的呈现被操纵的情况下实施的，并且会在刺激中同时发生。一些例子包括夸大大小或颜色，修改的位置，甚至放置亮点或贴纸上的刺激本身，以提供刺激内的提示。这方面的一个例子是，如果一个学习者正在学习如何使用计时器。在开始/停止按钮上放置一个绿色的标签，在开始/停止按钮上放置一个红色的标签，会提示学习者在指示设置计时器时按下正确的按钮。刺激提示主要出现在视觉提示的提示子组中，包括位置、图片和一些文本提示。
Response Prompts
反应辅助
Response prompts, unlike stimulus prompts, are when prompts are presented in addition to the instruction or cue to evoke correct responding. The main difference being that the prompt can be presented at different times during the learning trial (Deitz & Malone, 2017). Both categories enable the provider to tailor instruction specifically to the style of learning for each individual learner (Demchak, 1989). The majority of response prompts are typically going to fall within the prompt subgroups for physical guidance, gestures, modeling/video modeling and verbal prompts. An example of a response prompt would include providing the instruction, followed by an immediate prompt or simultaneously prompting with the instruction. For example, if a child is learning to follow an instruction to roll a ball across the room, the provider would state the instruction “roll the ball”, while simultaneously using a physical prompt to have the child’s hand roll the ball forward. Thus, the instruction is stated at the same time the ball starts rolling. Another example would be teaching a learner to answer the question, “What is your name?”. The provider would state the question, followed by immediately stating the answer to the question using a full verbal prompt. This example demonstrates how a prompt can be provided at different points of the learning trial. The table below defines some of the more commonly utilized prompts to teach discrete skills and behavioral chains involved in a task.
与刺激辅助不同，反应辅助是在指令或暗示之外提供的提示，以唤起正确的反应。主要的区别在于提示符可以在学习试验的不同时间显示(Deitz & Malone，2017)。这两个类别使提供者能够专门针对每个学习者的学习风格进行指导(德姆查克，1989年)。大多数的反应提示通常都属于身体指导、手势、建模/视频模型和口头提示的提示子组。响应提示的示例包括提供指令，然后立即提示或同时提示指令。例如，如果一个孩子正在学习按照指示将球滚过房间，提供者将说明指示”滚球”，同时使用物理提示让孩子的手将球向前滚动。因此，提示是在球开始滚动的同时说明的。另一个例子是教学生回答“你叫什么名字?”.提供者会陈述问题，然后立即用一个完整的口头提示说明问题的答案。这个示例演示了如何在学习试验的不同点提供提示。下面的表格定义了一些更常用的提示，用于教授任务中涉及的离散技能和行为链。
Prompt Hierarchy: Most-to-Least Prompting Procedure
提示层次: 最多到最少提示过程
Most-to-Least
最多到最少
Most-to-Least prompting involves teaching a skill by starting with the most intrusive prompt to ensure the learners contacts the correct response and reinforcement, while also reducing errors. The intrusiveness of the prompts are then systematically faded across trials if the learner is demonstrating success. Most-to-least and Least-to-Most prompting procedures can be utilized with discrete trial teachings, as well as teaching successive steps to a task, such as brushing teeth. Additionally, these strategies can be utilized to teach a chain of tasks, such as completing a morning routine (i.e., breakfast, shower, dressing, etc.) (Cengher, Budd, Farrell, & Fienup, 2017).
Most-to-Least 激励包括从最具侵入性的提示开始教授一项技能，以确保学习者接触到正确的反应和强化，同时减少错误。如果学习者证明自己是成功的，那么这些提示的干扰性就会在试验中系统性地消失。Most-to-least 和 Least-to-Most 提示程序可以用于不连续的试教，也可以用于教授一项任务的连续步骤，如刷牙。此外，这些策略可以用来教授一系列的任务，比如完成一个早晨的例行公事(例如，早餐，淋浴，穿衣服等)(Cengher，Budd，Farrell，& Fienup，2017)。
Listener Discrimination Discrete Skill
听者识别离散技巧
An example of most-to-least prompting for teaching a learner to hand over a toy car when asked may include beginning with the most intrusive physical prompt (e.g., hand over hand) and manually guiding the learner’s hands through all steps until completion. Once the learner is demonstrating success with the most intrusive physical prompt, fading to a lesser intrusive physical prompt would be employed for the next learning trial. The prompt hierarchy for this skill would essentially fade from full physical, partial physical, gesture, time delay and independence.
一个教导学习者在被要求时交出玩具车的最多到最少的提示的例子可能包括从最具侵扰性的物理提示(例如，交出手)开始，手动引导学习者的手通过所有步骤直到完成。一旦学习者在最具侵入性的物理刺激下表现出成功，那么在下一个学习试验中就会采用较弱的侵入性物理刺激。这种技能的提示等级将基本上淡出完整的身体，部分身体，手势，时间延迟和独立性。
Expressive Language Discrete Skill
表达性语言的离散技巧
If the skill requires no physical efforts, such as learning to label stimuli in the environment, then the most-to-least procedure can be utilized using verbal prompts such as full verbal, partial verbal, textual, as well as time delay and gesture prompts.
如果这种技能不需要身体上的努力，例如学习在环境中标记刺激，那么最多到最少的过程可以使用口头提示，如完全口头，部分口头，文本，以及时间延迟和手势提示。
Example 1:
例子一:
For instance, if teaching a learner to say, “Cat” when presented with a picture of a cat, the prompt hierarchy may resemble the following: Full verbal prompt (“Cat”), Partial Verbal (“Cah”), Time delay 2 seconds, Time delay 5 seconds, and independence.
例如，如果教一个学习者在看到一只猫的图片时说“ Cat”，提示的层次结构可能类似于以下: 完全语言提示(“ Cat”) ，部分语言(“ Cah”) ，时间延迟2秒，时间延迟5秒，以及独立性。
Example 2:
例子二:
Moreover, if the learner is increasing the length of utterance when manding, a prompt hierarchy may include the following: Full verbal (“I want cookie”) paired with textual script reading “I want cookie”, then faded to textual script “I want____”, moving to a partial verbal prompt (e.g., “I___”), gesture prompt (e.g., expectant look, shrug shoulders), time delay 5 second and independence.
此外，如果学习者在命令时增加了话语的长度，一个提示层次可能包括以下内容: 完全语言(“ i want cookie”)与文本脚本“ i want cookie”配对，然后淡化为文本脚本“ i want _ _”，移动到部分语言提示(如“ i _ _”) ，手势提示(如，期待的眼神，耸肩) ，时间延迟5秒和独立性。
Graduated Guidance
毕业指导
When using Graduated Guidance prompts the skill would be taught using prompts within the physical continuum only (e.g., full, partial physical, no prompt) (Cengher, Budd, Farrell, & Fienup, 2017). Graduated guidance can be used to teach skills such as appropriate use of utensils during mealtime. For example, using most-to-least graduated guidance for learning to use a fork would include the following sequence of prompts: full physical prompts (hand-over-hand), partial physical prompt one (prompt at the wrist), partial physical prompt two (prompt at the forearm), partial physical prompt three (prompt at the elbow), followed by independence (i.e., no-prompt) (Demchak, 1989).
当使用毕业指导提示技能将教授使用提示内的物理连续(例如，完整，部分物理，没有提示)(Cengher，Budd，Farrell，& Fienup，2017)。毕业指导可用于教授技能，例如在进餐时间适当使用餐具。例如，在学习使用叉子的过程中，使用大部分到最小程度的指导包括以下提示顺序: 完整的物理提示(手交)、部分的物理提示(手腕提示)、部分的物理提示(前臂提示)、部分的物理提示(肘关节提示)、部分的物理提示(肘关节提示) ，然后是独立(即不提示)(Demchak，1989)。
Prompt Hierarchy: Least-to-Most Prompting Procedure
提示层次: 最小到最大提示过程
Least-to-Most
最少对最多
With least-to-most prompting the learner is provided with an opportunity to independently respond to the instruction. If the learner engages in no response or an incorrect response a more intrusive prompt will be provided at the next trail presentation. The intrusiveness of the prompt systematically increases with each learning trial until the learner engages in a correct response (Cengher, Budd, Farrell, & Fienup, 2017).
在最少到最多的激励下，学习者有机会独立地对教学做出反应。如果学习者没有回答或者回答不正确，那么在下一次的试讲中将会提供一个更具侵入性的提示。提示的侵入性随着每次学习试验系统地增加，直到学习者做出正确的反应(Cengher，Budd，Farrell，& Fienup，2017)。
Listener Discrimination Discrete Skill
听者识别离散技巧
For example, if the instruction “sit down” is being taught, the prompt hierarchy may include the following: time delay 5 seconds, positional prompt (moving chair next to learner), gesture prompt (pointing to the chair), model prompt (teacher sits in chair), partial physical prompt (manual guidance from the shoulders) and full physical. The intrusiveness of prompts would systematically increase until a correct response is evoked (Neitzel & Wolery, 2009).
例如，如果教授“坐下”，提示等级可能包括以下内容: 时间延迟5秒，位置提示(移动椅子旁边的学习者) ，手势提示(指向椅子) ，模型提示(教师坐在椅子上) ，部分身体提示(从肩部手动指导)和完整身体提示。提示的侵入性会系统性地增加，直到唤起正确的反应(Neitzel & Wolery，2009)。
Expressive Language Discrete Skill
表达性语言的离散技巧
The least-to-most prompting procedure can also be implemented across expressive skills such as tacting, intraverbals and manding. For instance, the learner is working on asking for a cookie. The prompt hierarchy may include prompts such as: time delay 3 seconds, provide gesture prompt (e.g., shrug shoulders and put both palms of hands up), verbal prompt (e.g., “Did you want something?”), partial verbal prompt (e.g., “Coo”), and ending with a full verbal prompt (e.g., “Cookie”).
最少到最多的提示程序也可以实施跨表达技能，如技巧，内动词和曼丁。例如，学习者正在努力要求一块饼干。提示等级可能包括提示，例如: time delay 3 seconds，提供手势提示(例如耸肩和双手掌向上) ，口头提示(例如: “ Did you want something?”)部分言语提示(如“ Coo”) ，以完整的言语提示(如“ Cookie”)结束。
Summary
总结
In summary, effective and efficient prompt hierarchy and prompt-fading procedures have many advantages when teaching a variety of tasks, including new and difficult skills, or simply improving the thoroughness and independence of a partially learned skill. Utilizing prompts has proven to create success for the learner when procedures are implemented with fidelity, individualized to complement the particular skill, and while ensuring to incorporate individual learning styles. Moreover, keep in mind the main objective of prompt hierarchy and prompt fade procedures is to produce the highest level of independent correct responding with the least amount of resources (Myrna, Weiss, Bancroft, & Ahearn, 2008). Increasing an individual’s level of independence is incredibly advantageous for their future well-being. Independence has the ability to open doors for meaningful opportunities in the future. In essence, independence can really be thought of as freedom; freedom that will harvest a meaningful and high quality of life for years to come.
总之，在教授各种任务时，包括新的和困难的技能，或者仅仅是提高部分学习技能的彻底性和独立性时，有效和高效的及时分级和及时消退程序具有许多优点。事实证明，利用提示为学习者创造成功的过程是忠实地执行，个性化地补充特定的技能，同时确保纳入个人的学习风格。此外，记住提示层次和提示淡出程序的主要目标是以最少的资源产生最高水平的独立正确响应(Myrna，Weiss，Bancroft，& Ahearn，2008)。提高一个人的独立水平对他们未来的幸福是非常有利的。独立有能力在未来为有意义的机会打开大门。从本质上讲，独立可以被认为是一种自由; 这种自由将在未来的岁月里收获一种有意义的、高质量的生活。