t is
good or bad does not merely refer to an individual emotion; as will be
shown subsequently, it always has reference to an emotion of a more
public character. Very often it even implies some vague assumption
that the act must be recognised as good or bad by everybody who
possesses a sufficient knowledge of the case and of all attendant
circumstances, and who has a "sufficiently developed" {7} moral
consciousness. We are not willing to admit that our moral convictions
are a mere matter of taste, and we are inclined to regard convictions
differing from our own as errors. This characteristic of our moral
judgments has been adduced as an argument against the emotionalist
theory of moral origins, and has led to the belief that the moral
concepts represent qualities which are discerned by reason.
Cudworth, Clarke, Price, and Reid are names which recall to our mind a
theory according to which the morality of actions is perceived by the
intellect, just as are number, diversity, causation, proportion.
"Morality is eternal and immutable," says Richard Price. "Right and
wrong, it appears, denote what actions are. Now whatever any thing is,
that it is, not by will, or degree, or power, but by nature and
necessity. Whatever a triangle or circle is, that it is unchangeably
and eternally. . . . The same is to be said of right and wrong, of
moral good and evil, as far as they express real characters of
actions. They must immutably and necessarily belong to those actions
of which they are truly affirmed."[6] And as having a real existence
outside the mind, they can only be discerned by the understanding. It
is true that this discernment is accompanied with an emotion: "Some
impressions of pleasure or pain, satisfaction or disgust, generally
attend our perceptions of virtue and vice. But these are merely their
effects and concomitants, and not the perceptions themselves, which
ought no more to be confounded with them, than a particular truth
(like that for which Pythagoras offered a hecatomb) ought to be
confounded with the pleasure that may attend the discovery of it."[7]
[Footnote 6: Price, Review of the Principal Questions in Morals, pp.
63, 74 sq.]
[Footnote 7: Ibid. p. 63.]
According to another doctrine, the moral predicates, though not
regarded as expressions of "theoretical" truth, nevertheless derive
all their import from reason from "practical" or "moral" reason, as it
is variously {8} called. Thus Professor Sidgwick holds that the
fundamental notions represented by the word "ought" or "right," which
moral judgments contain expressly or by implication, are essentially
different from all notions representing facts of physical or psychical
experience, and he refers such judgments to the "reason," understood
as a faculty of cognition. By this he implies "that what ought to be
is a possible object of knowledge, i.e., that what I judge ought to
be, must, unless I am in error, be similarly judged by all rational
beings who judge truly of the matter." The moral judgments contain
moral truths, and "cannot legitimately be interpreted as judgments
respecting the present or future existence of human feelings or any
facts of the sensible world."[8]
[Footnote 8: Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics, pp. 25, 33 sq.]
Yet our tendency to objectivise the moral judgments is no sufficient
ground for referring them to the province of reason. If, in this
respect, there is a difference between these judgments and others that
are rooted in the subjective sphere of experience, it is, largely, a
difference in degree rather than in kind. The aesthetic judgments,
which indisputably have an emotional origin, also lay claim to a
certain amount of "objectivity." By saying of a piece of music that it
is beautiful, we do not merely mean that it gives ourselves aesthetic
enjoyment, but we make a latent assumption that it must have a similar
effect upon everybody who is sufficiently musical to appreciate it.
This objectivity ascribed to judgments which have a merely subjective
origin springs in the first place from the similarit
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