一、翻译定义：
1. 张培基——翻译是用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动。
10. “Translation is the expression in one language of what has been expressed in another language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences.” --- Dubois
12. “Translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language.” --- Peter Newmark
13. Translation or translating is a communicative activity or dynamic process in which the translator makes great effort to thoroughly comprehend a written message or text in the source language and works very hard to achieve an adequate or an almost identical reproduction in the target language version of the written source language message or text.
二、翻译标准
1. 翻译的标准概括为言简意赅的四个字：“忠实（faithfulness）、通顺（smoothness）”。忠实指的是忠实于原文。通顺指的是译文的语言必须合乎规范、通俗易懂。
2. 严复对翻译曾经提出“信（faithfulness）、达（expressiveness）、雅（elegance）”的标准
3. “泰特勒三原则”：（1）That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work；（2）That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original；（3）That the Translation should have all the ease of original composition.”
（1）译作应完全复写出原作的思想；（2）译作的风格和手法应和原作属于同一性质；（3）译作应具备原作所具有的通顺。”
5. 奈达提出了著名的“动态对等”。他对翻译所下的定义: 所谓翻译, 是在译语中用最切近而又最自然的对等语再现源语的信息, 首先是意义, 其次是文体。这一定义明确指出翻译的本质和任务是用译语再现源语信息, 翻译的方法用最切近而又最自然的对等语。
7. Vermeer的“目的论”：
通常情况下，“目的”是指译文的交际目的。目的论认为，翻译过程的发起者（initiator）决定译文的交际目的，但当发起者因专业知识不足或其他原因对译文目的不甚明了的时候，译者可以与发起者协商，从特殊的翻译情况中得出译文目的。目的性原则要求译者在整个翻译过程中的参照系不应是对等翻译理论所强调的原文和功能，而应是译文在译语文化环境中所要达到的一种或几种交际功能，即应以实现译文在译语文化中的预期功能为首要原则。
郭沫若：好的翻译等于创作
三、翻译过程
4.从翻译的题材来看明，翻译可分为专业性翻译（翻译法律、科技文献、专业学术论著等）、文学翻译（翻译小说、诗歌、戏剧等文学作品）和一般性翻译（翻译各种应用文和新闻报道等）。
5. 从翻译方式上来看，翻译可分为全译、摘译和编译。
五、中西语言差异：形合（hypotaxis）与意合（parataxis）
“形合”和“意合”是已故语言学家王力先生所译。形合指句子内部的连接或
树枝 流水
六、中国翻译简史
1. 古代佛经翻译的三个阶段
2. 中国近现代翻译
民末清初的科技翻译
明徐光启和意大利人利马杜合作，翻译了欧几里德的《几何原本》、《测量法义》等书。
鸦片战争至甲午战争前
著名的禁烟英雄林则徐决心“师夷之长技以制夷”，开始“日日使人刺探西事，翻译西书”，被誉为“组织翻译活动的先驱”。语言学家马建忠在其《拟设翻译书院议》一文中留下了一些有关翻译的论述。他提甲午战争后
最著名的翻译家当首推严复。严复所译作品多系西方政治经济学说，如赫胥黎的《天演论》(Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays)，亚当•斯密的《原富》(An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth ofNations)，斯宾塞尔的《群己权界论》(On Liberty)、甄克斯的《社会通诠》(TheStudy of Politics)等、并提出简洁凝练的翻译标准“信、达、雅”(faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance) 。清林纾和他的合作者以口述笔记的方式译了一百六十多部文学作品，其中最著名的有《黑奴吁天记》(Uncle Tom’s Cabin)，《块肉余生记》(David Copperfield)，《王子复仇记》(Hamlet)等（现用新译名）。
晚清时期
中国译者对国外文学名著的翻译也情有独钟，所出版的译作主要有《伊索寓言》、《天方夜谭》、《鲁宾逊漂流记》、《茶花女遗事》、《悲惨世界》、《安娜·卡列妮娜》等等。这一时期介绍外国文学作品探索文学翻译理论的翻译家主要有林纾、周桂笙、徐念慈、伍光建、苏曼殊和王国维等。
“五四”运动以后
中国译坛又陆续涌现出一大批翻译实践和翻译理论大家，其中有很多都是著名的文学家，如鲁迅、胡适、林语堂、茅盾、郭沫若、瞿秋白、朱生豪、朱光潜等。
3. 中国当代翻译
到了1990年，刘宓庆的《现代翻译理论》出版，译界公认此书为现代翻译理论体系建立的标志，传统译论也就圆满地划上了句号，取而代之的是科学的、成体系的现代翻译理论。
七、西方翻译简史
1. 古代翻译活动：
西方翻译活动可追溯到公元前三世纪。当时有文字记载的翻译作品已经问世：七十二位犹太学者在自己埃及的亚历山大城翻译了《圣经•旧约》，即后人所称的《七十子希腊文本》；罗马文学家安德罗尼科用拉丁文翻译了《奥德赛》。
八、常用翻译方法、策略与技巧
1. 直译与意译（Literal translation and Free translation）
注：在翻译界通用的方法是将“直译”与“意译”相互结合。任何一篇好的翻译作品，并不是单纯的某一种翻译方法贯穿始终，而是在保持原文内容的准确性，不引起歧义的情况下，将这两种翻译方法在同一翻译作品中并用，相得益彰。笔者对翻译界的这种做法完全认同。笔者认为，两种翻译方法在任何一篇翻译作品中都能并用的话，一定可以译出一部优秀的翻译作品。
2. 归化和异化（domestication and foreignization）
归化（domestication）是指在翻译中采用透明、流畅的风格，最大限度地淡化原文的陌生感的翻译策略它应尽可能的使源语文本所反映的世界接近目的语文化读者的世界，从而达到源语文化与目的语文化之间的“文化对等”。
异化（foreignization）是指偏离本土主流价值观，保留原文的语言和文化差异指在一定程度上保留原文的异域性，故意打破目标语言常规的翻译它主张在译文中保留源语文化，丰富目的语文化和目的语的语言表达方式。
面试问题收集
1. 从大学翻译课程里学到了什么?
① 国内外的翻译史 the translation theorie at home and abroad
② 一些知名的翻译派别及其各自学说 famous translation methods represented by famous translators
③ 翻译技巧 translating skills and methods.
2. 知道哪些翻译技巧？
① 加注(annotation)：由于英汉文化存在许多差异，因此英语中某些文化词语在汉语中根本就没有对等词，形成了词义上的空缺。在这种情况下，英译汉时常常要采用加注法来弥补空缺。加注通常可以用来补充诸如背景材料、词语起源等相关信息，便于读者理解。加注法可
② 增词(amplification)：英汉两种语言由于表达方式不尽相同，翻译时常常有必要在译文的词量上作适当的增加，使译文既能忠实地传达原文的内容和风格，又能符合译入语的表达习惯。但是增词必须是根据具体情况增加非增加不可的词语。增词一般用于以下三种情况：一是为了语法上的需要；二是为了意义上的需要；三是为了修辞上的需要。
③ 减词(Omission)：减词是指将原文中需要、而译文中又不需要的词语省去。减省的词语应是那些在译文中保留下来反而使行文累赘噜嗦、且不合汉语语言表达习惯的词语。减词一般用于以下两种情况：一是从语法角度进行减省；二是从修饰角度进行减省。
④ 转换(conversion)：由于英汉两种语言在语法和表达方式等方面存在着许多差异，因此英译汉时常常有必要改变表达方式，使译文通顺流畅、地道可读。这种变通技巧就是转换法(shift of perspective)。转换的形式多种多样，大体可分为7种：词类转换，句子成分转换，表达方式转换，自然语序与倒装语序转换；正面表达与反面表达转换，主动式与被动式转换，分句转换。
⑤ 正说反译，反说正译(negation)：
e.g. The question is above me. 这个问题我答不上来。
Transliteration
Literal Translation
Literal translation, or direct translation, is the rendering of text from one language to another word-for-word rather than conveying the sense of the original.the approach of literal translation is a good way to fill the gap without going against its cultural convention, causing unfavorable association, or misunderstanding. This method can retain the national or local flavor to some extent.
Free translation
Free translation, also called creative translation, is a supplementary translation method. A free translation is a translation that reproduces the general meaning of the original text. It may or may not closely follow the form or organization of the original. It emphasizes on the functional equivalence of the original text, because in some cases, the original meaning can not be fully conveyed if translated word-by-word.
Combination of transliteration and literal translation attaches more attention to the target language, which makes every effort to associate the source language with the target language and sort out the best association. It not only requires translator’s full mastery of both source and target language, but also requires a creative mind. Through applying this method, a good brand name is more likely to achieve.
4. 平时怎样提高自己翻译水平：
① 去译言网
② 研读名家译文one way is to study the translation works by famous translator, but only appreciating other translation work will be far away from being a good translator, we also should take out our pen and try to translate in person as often as possible. And compare the two versions, yours and others, find out the difference and figure out the reason, and give yourself a neutral evaluation, take notes and make a conclusion.
5. 是否读过翻译方面原著：
The Theory and Practice of Translating by Eugene Nida
I read part of it, because of read it as a reference when I wrote my thesis paper during last year.
6. 你知道哪些翻译理论或者原则：
Dynamic equivalence (also known as functional equivalence)
Scopostheorie veer mire
Different from other translation theories, Skopotheorie is a subdivision of Function theory, which insists that translation is a target language-oriented activity with intended function. The prime principle determining any translation is the purpose of the overall translational action. And the translator has the right to determine when and how to translate. That is to say, translator should use proper translation methods according to different purposes and has the right to determine what to be remained, or molded.
7. Do you know the difference between dynamic equivalence and functional equivalence? Do you know formal equivalence?
Do you have you own translation criteria?
Owning to my translation experience is not enough; I spelled out several rules that I have to obey. Firstly, faithfulness, as a green handed translator, carrying out the original meaning of the speaker is the most fundamental thing that we have to obey, with nothing extra added and nothing removed.
8. 对翻译的理解；translation, in my opinion, is like a matchmaker, an agent that bridge the gap between two different speakers. Sometimes, it is like a magic, which can remover the misunderstanding of the two speakers by the careful translator. If he have noticed the improperness of the speaker and it’s not the original intention of the speaker, the translator can modify or make a little fix of the translation so that can achieve a better result.
9. 选择翻译的理由；
实用
10. 个人素养（包括中英文背景知识——读过的文学书籍等、翻译理论的了解、翻译过的东西）；
11. 对MTI的理解和读MTI期间的打算；对未来的规划；MTI学习同你的规划之间的关系。
学好笔译，同时去听口译的课，将来能成为合格的译员或者能够去高校任教。
12. 其他的可能因人而异，比如说个人经历同翻译的关系等等
个人经历越丰富，理解能力越强，翻译起来更容易。
1. What do you consider translation to be, art, science or just craft? Please elaborate on your stand.
Art,需要细细雕琢，特别是笔译
2. What do you think the optimal translation criteria should be? Please make some comments on Yan Fu’s “faithfulness”, “expressiveness” and “elegance”.
3. How do you view the “cultural turn” phenomenon in translation studies nowadays?
4. How do you view the inter-relationship among language, culture and translation?
Interdepent and interwoven together.
1. 你知道哪些翻译理论或者原则，围绕原则继续深入讨论6. 你知道哪些翻译理论或者原则：
Dynamic equivalence (also known as functional equivalence)
Scopostheorie
Different from other translation theories, Skopotheorie is a subdivision of Function theory, which insists that translation is a target language-oriented activity with intended function. The prime principle determining any translation is the purpose of the overall translational action. And the translator has the right to determine when and how to translate. That is to say, translator should use proper translation methods according to different purposes and has the right to determine what to be remained, or molded.