Review of English Academic Writing (HITSZ)

好久没发文章了……因为博主事情实在太多了……本文趁着考试周多记录几篇博客，希望对自己和对后人有点帮助。本文是对英语学术写作课程的复习与回顾，需要说明的是该文的目的不仅是复习，更多的是为了写给想要写好论文的人

1. Plagiarism and Reference

1.1 Overview

Referencing

In-text

At the end

Footnote citation

In-text citation

Parenthtical citation

Narrative citation

References

4 components:
Auther/Date of
publication/Title/
Source

1.2 What is plagiarism

There are five types of plagiarism

• Verbatim plagiarism (逐字抄袭)
  • Ctrl C + Ctrl V, i.e., copy and paste.
  • Quote, i.e., use an author’s exact words.
• Patchwork plagiarism (拼接抄袭)
  • Mosaic plagiarism
  • Copy phrases and ideas from different sources and put them together to create a new text.
• Paraphrasing plagiarism (改写抄袭)
  • The most common type of plagiarism.
  • You rewrote the paragraphs in your own words, doesn’t make the idea yours.
  • Solution: Cite it!
• Global plagiarism (全局抄袭)
  • The most serious type of plagiarism
  • Ghost writer.
  • Find text online and submit it as your own.
  • Take someone else’s work entirely and use it as your own.
• Self-plagiarism (自己抄自己)
  • Reuse the work you’ve previously submitted (Academic dishonesty)

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Exercises:

1. Say you found two papers about the same research: Paper A is the original finding; Paper B is an analysis that references Paper A. You use a section of the analysis from Paper B. Which paper do you cite?

   Answer: Both. Since paper B make the analysis of paper A.

2. For a class assignment that students are to complete individually, Student A and Student B decide to collaborate. Student A compiles research notes while Student B identifies the main findings. Both write their own original research papers, and neither cite the other’s work. Is this:

   • A. Unethical collaboration (不道德的合作)
   • B. Plagiarism
   • C. Both A and B
   • D. Acceptable collaboration

1.3 Improving our referencing skills

1.3.1 Quoting

• How to introduce a quote (three ways).

  • Introductory sentence: Introduce a quote with a full sentence, followed by a colon ( : )

    In Denmark, a recent poll shows that support for the EU had grown since the Brexit vote :“…”

  • Introductory signal phrase: Use a signal phrase that mentions the author or source (not form a full sentence).

    According to Levring (2018) , “…”

  • Integrate into your sentence

    A recent poll suggests that EU membership “…” in a referendum.

• Differences between short and long quote.

  • Less than 40 words: quotation marks plus in-text citation

    Deadpool says: “I am Deadpool” (Deadpool, 2022)

  • Otherwise, set the quote on a new line and indent that quote

    Deadpool says:

    I am

    Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool Deadpool

• How to make changes to a quote.

  • Too long/irreverent information: Replacing them with ellipses (…)

    Original: Deadpool says: “I like Deadpool, and so he does”.

    After Change: Deadpool says: “I like Deadpool …”.

  • Add information: Using brackets [XXX]

    Original: “for two years he enjoyed to touch himself”.

    After Change: “for two years [Deadpool] enjoyed to touch himself”.

  • Spelling and grammatical mistakes: Using [sic] to indicate this is not my fault.

    Original: “… twelth-month”

    After Change: “twelth-mouth [sic]”

1.3.2 Paraphrasing

A paraphrase is to rewrite the author’s meaning in your own words

• Without changing the original meaning
• Not removing any information

1.3.3 Summarizing

• A summary is a synopsis or brief restatement of the main idea of something.
• Summaries can vary in length, but are always a condensed form (简明扼要的形式) of the original text.
• Like paraphrases, summaries must be written in your own words using your own sentence structure.

1.3.4 Referencing

• An in-text citation

  • Cite a specific part of a source—include a locater

    (Deadpool, 2022, Page number/timestamp/paragraph number heading)

  • Integrate your in-text citation into a sentence

    • Parenthetical citation

      There is a positive … in teenagers (Parker, 2019)

    • Narrative citation (叙述引用)

      Parker (2019) found a positive … in teenagers.

    • Citing multiple authors: ① A maximum of two authors are included. ② If more, use “et al.”

      One author: (Harries, 2020)

      Two authors: (Harries & Deadpool, 2020)

      Three or more authors: (Harries et al., 2020)

    • No author: Using Organization Name or Title, i.e., (Tesla, 2022) or (“Thinking, Fast and Slow”, 2017) or (Thinking, Fast and Slow, 2017)

    • No publication year: Using “n.d.” for “No Date”, i.e., (Deadpool, n.d.)

• Referencing

  • APA style

  • 4 components: Author/Date/Title/Source

    • Author: ① Inverted, i.e., Smith T. ② Multiple author, i.e., Wilson, W., Brown, M.J., & Happy, D. ③ No author, i.e., using the Organization Name or Title.
    • Date: ① Publication year (2020) ② Year and month (2020, January) ③ Year, month, and day (2020, January 15) ④ Year range (2017-2020).
    • Title: ① Stand-alone work: Italics and sentence case (首字母大写 + 斜体). i.e., Wilson, W. (2022). How I become Deadpool. ② Proceedings or journals work: Sentence case but no italics. i.e., Wilson, W. (2022). How I become Deadpool. Journal of ACM.
    • Source: DOI or URL.

2. Essay

2.1 Overview

Essay

Main Parts

Introduction

Body

Conclusion

Organization

Chronological order

Cause and Effect

Comparison and Contrast

Argumentative

2.2 Main parts of an essay

• Essay

  Components:

  • Introduction: ① General statements ② Thesis statements (论点)
  • Body: ① Topic sentence ② Support evidences ③ (Conclusion)
  • Conclusion: Restatement or summary of the main points.

• Paragraph

  Components:

  • Topic sentence
  • Support evidences
  • *Conclusion

In summary, each paragraph must hold a topic sentence. Then providing a series of evidences to support that key idea. And finally concluding the paragraph.

2.3 Organizations

2.3.1 Chronological Order (时间顺序)

Signal words:

2.3.2 Cause/Effect (因果顺序)

• Block organization
  • First discuss all the causes as a block, then discuss all the effects together as a block.
  • Discuss either causes or effects first.
  • Discuss only causes or only effects.
• Chain organization
  • Discuss both the cause and effect in the same paragraph.

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Cause signal words:

Effect signal words:

2.3.3 Comparison/Contrast (对比)

• Point-by-Point organization

  • Compare the two subject focuses on specific points to each other at one time.

  • An example:

    Fish live in salt or freshwater, while mammals can live on land or in water. Fish have gills to take in oxygen, but mammals have lung to receive oxygen in the body. Fish, also, have scales while mammals have skin or fur.

• Block organization

  • One subject is completely compared and contrasted before moving on the next subject.

  • An example:

    A fish has scales, and is able to swim in salt or fresh water. They also have gills which are used to help them receive oxygen.

    A mammal can live on land or in water. They have lungs to help them breathe, and they have skin or fur.

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Comparison signal words:

Contrast signal words: Concession

Contrast signal words: Direct Opposition

2.3.4 Argumentative essays (议论文)

The key for a good argumentative essays should include 5 components:

1. An explanation of the issue
2. A clear thesis statement
3. Presentation of the opposing statements
4. Rebuttals
5. Your own arguments

Here are two organization patterns:

• Point-by-Point pattern

  • Introduction: Explanation of the issues, including a summary of the other side’s arguments. Then presenting the thesis statement.
  • Body:
    • Statement of the other side’s first a argument and rebuttal with your own counterargument.
    • Statement of the other side’s second a argument and rebuttal with your own counterargument.
    • Statement of the other side’s third a argument and rebuttal with your own counterargument.
  • Conclusion: a summary of your point of view

• Block pattern

  • Introduction: Explanation of the issues. Then presenting the thesis statement.

  • Body:

    • Block 1 (Summary and Refute):

      • Summary of other side’s arguments
      • Rebuttal to the first argument
      • Rebuttal to the second argument
      • Rebuttal to the third argument

    • Block 2 (Your own argument):

      • Your first argument
      • Your second argument
      • Your second argument

  • Conclusion: a summary of your point of view

3. The Process of Academic Writing

3.1 Overview

Four stages:

Creating

Outlining

Drafting

Revising

3.2 Creating

• Goals
  • What writing task? (genre & assessment criteria)
  • Whom to write for? (audience)
• Idea development
  • Thesis
  • Sub-points
  • Concrete support
  • Logic

3.3 Outlining

• Introduction
• Idea 1
  • Supporting idea 1
    • Detail or Example
  • Supporting idea 2
    • Detail or Example
• Idea 2
  • Supporting idea 1
    • Detail or Example
  • Supporting idea 2
    • Detail or Example
• Idea 3
  • Supporting idea 1
    • Detail or Example
  • Supporting idea 2
    • Detail or Example
• Conclusion

3.4 Drafting

• Statistics
• Concrete examples
• …

3.5 Revising and polishing

• Content-based revision: Is your writing logical and convincing ? Does your draft look acceptable to academics?
• Academic conventions: Spelling/Punctuation/Formatting/Referencing styles
• Tools/Resources: Grammerly and so on.
• Peer review: mostly by your tutor.

4. Paragraph Structure, Unity and Coherence

4.1 Overview

• Hamburger Structure: ① Topic sentence. ② Support Evidences. ③ Conclusions.

• Unity and Coherence: Presenting one and only one idea main idea in a paragraph, making sure that the whole paragraph tells totally the same story. Further, to make your paragraph coherence, five ways are given to achieve this:

  Coherence

  Repeat Key

  Use consistent pronouns

  Use transition signals to link ideas

  Arrange ideas

  Grammtical cohesive ties

4.2 Paragraph Structure

4.2.1 Topic sentence

What topic sentence is for? It is very important to tell the reader what the rest of the paragraph is about. It helps writer to stay focused.

Let’s exercise:

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Which one of the followings is the topic sentence?

• a. Another important change was the people had the freedom to live and work wherever they wanted.

• b. The earlieast significant change was for farming families, who were no longer isolated.

• c. The final major change brought by the automobile was the building of superhighways, suburbs, huge shopping centers and theme parks such as Disney World in Florida.

• d. The automobile revolutionized the way of life in the United States.

• e. The automobile enabled them to drive to towns and cities comfortably and conveniently.

• f. In fact, people could work in a busy metropolitan city and drive home to the quiet suburbs.

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Topic sentence is also vital to our paper writing, especially for those writers who have hard time in English writing. Paper writing should focus on more on the logic flow.

4.2.2 Support evidences

• Statistics
• Date/Examples, etc.
• …

4.3 Unity

4.3.1 What is Unity?

NOTE: A paragraph has unity when all the sentences support a single idea.

Let’s show some comparisons.

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One paragraph without unity

Establishing rural financial systems involves identifying which financial systems are appropriate for the region in question.

Low population density and difficult-to-reach remote areas in many countries translate into high transaction costs for financial institutions contemplating an entry into these areas.

Limited economic opportunities in many rural areas result in small transactions, further increasing overall transaction costs. Rural financial systems offer particular challenges that do not seem to affect countrywide systems.

You can hardly find the logic of the paragraph above since it lacks unity, and also is not well structured.

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One paragraph with unity and well-structured

In addition to the challenges inherent in developing countrywide financial systems, establishing rural financial systems encompasses many specific challenges.

For example, with low population density and difficult-to-reach remote areas in many countries, transaction costs are high.

Also, limited economic opportunities in many rural areas result in small transactions, further increasing overall transaction costs.

The paragraph above is a good example since it has topic sentence and all the examples are used to support the controlling idea.

4.3.2 How to check Unity?

We present the checklist below:

• Does every detail I have selected support the main idea?
• Have I organized the supporting details in the most logical way?
• Have I included any sentences that are unnecessary because they simply Restate the main point without adding any new information or meaning?
• Have I made the relationships between my ideas clear?

4.4 Coherence

NOTE: Maintaining coherence in a paragraph or a composition not only requires unity, but also a logical, smooth, and natural flow from one idea to another. The good example in section 4.3 also shows a coherent paragraph.

Here, we give five tips to achieve coherence.

4.4.1 Repeat key

TIPs: Use synonyms or expressions with the same meaning. For example

There are couples who dislike one another furiously for several hours at a time; there are couples who dislike one another permanently; and there are couples who never dislike one another; but these last are people who are incapable of disliking anybody.

Here, each sentence use “couples”, so that it achieves quite good coherence.

Besides, using Superordinate nouns can also achieve this. For example

Yesterday, a pigeon carried the first message from Pinhurst to Silbury. The bird covered the distance in three minutes.

In the above sentence, The bird is superordinate to a pigeon.

4.4.2 Use consistent pronouns (一致的代词)

TIPs: do not change from you to he/she or from he/she to they. Let’s see a very bad example:

A student who know a few Latin and Greek roots and prefixes have an advantage over a student who does not know them. They can often guess the meaning of new words. If, for example, you know that the profix omni means “all,” you have a better chance of guessing the meanings of words such as omnibus, omnipresent, and omnidirectoinal. Furthermore, a student who know that the root sci- comes from scire, “to know,” can guess that omniscient means “all-knowing.”

4.4.3 Use transition signals to link ideas

NOTE: In an effective composition, the current of thought flows smoothly throughout the composition. Use one or more types of transitional words or phrases to connect ideas within and between paragraphs:

• transitional expressions
• direct pronoun references (直接代词引用)

Let’s see some typical transition signal words.

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Let’s exercise!

Read the transitions below. (1) Circle out one transition which does not fit in with others in each line. (2) match transitions with the name of categories provided in the box and put it down in the blank.

Causes and effects Addition- link new information to the old information Place- to describe a particular location or place Compare and contrast Examples- to move readers into specific examples Conclusion- to summarize abovementioned ideas and signal the end of the text Time- to move readers from one time to another

Addiction 1. also, besides, consequently [Cause and effects], again, in addition

Examples 2. for example, particularly, therefore [Cause and effects], for instance, namely

Place 3. alongside, here, there, likewise [Compare and contrast], in the front, in the background, nearby

Time 4. at first, similarly [Compare and contrast], afterwards, meanwhile, currently, before this, in the future, in the end, eventually

Cause and effects 5. because of, to conclude [conclusion], due to, as a result, therefore

Compare and contrast 6. but, obviously, in contrast, however, likewise, although, nevertheless

Conclusion 7. to sum up, in this case, on the whole, finally, all in all, in brief.

4.4.4 Arrange ideas to achieve coherence

• Chronological order
  • Narrating a story
  • Explaining a step-by-step process
  • Relating a historical account
  • Relating an incident or anecdote
• Spatial order
  • Describing a scene or place
• Order of importance
  • Presenting facts, examples, reasons
  • Writing persuasively
  • Evaluating a subject
• Cause and Effects
  • Explaining scientific findings
  • Explaining a historical event
• Classification
  • Analyzing literature, a speech, etc.
  • Defining a subject

4.4.5 Grammatical cohesive ties

• Tense agreement (时态一致性)
• Pronoun & articles (名词与量词对应)

4.5 Typical Transition Signals

• Firstly, Secondly vs. First, Second

  We show various combinations here：

  • First … secondly … thirdly …
  • Firstly … secondly … thirdly …
  • First … second … third …
  • Firstly … second … third …（this is not acceptable!!!）

• On one hand… on the other hand vs. On the one hand… on the other hand

  Both are correct. But using on the one hand is more professional.

• Last but not the least vs. Last but not least

  Use “Last but not least” is correct.

5. Types of Sentences

5.1 Clause (从句)

5.1.1 What is a Clause?

A clause is a group of words that functions as one part of speech and that includes a subject (主语) and a verb (动词).

For example

• Let’s find a table that gets the sunlight (clause)
• Let’s find a table in the sun (phrase)
• Let’s find a sunny table (word)

5.1.2 Types of Clauses

• Independent clause (独立从句)

  • An independent clause is a sentence
  • For example:
    • Academic integrity is important
    • I am Deadpool

• Dependent clause (依赖从句)

  • A dependent clause cannot be a sentence and is marked by a dependent marker word

  • For example:

    • Since I am Deadpool, …
    • When I am Deadpool, …

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Exercise:

What type of clauses below is?

• Water evaporates rapidly in warm climate zones. [Independent Clause]
• Because water evaporates rapidly in warm climate zones. [Dependent Clause]

5.1.3 Noun Clauses (名词从句)

A noun clause functions as a subject (主语) or object (宾语)

• That clauses (That从句)

  If “that” is used as object, then it can be omitted. For example

  • The prize-winning writer and his wife told the press (that) they were enjoying their visit.
  • That his book is a critical success is beyond doubt.

• Subjunctive noun clauses (虚拟名词从句)

  • Verb in base form (动词使用原型)
  • Occur after verbs and adjectives of urgency, advisability, necessity, and desirability.
  • For example: The president of the University demanded that whoever fails more than 3 courses be expelled.

• Question clauses (疑问从句)

  • Use subject-verb statement word order
  • “Do”, “does”, “did” disappear
  • For example
    • The police do not know who committed the robbery.
    • What is your name? → He asks what your name is.

• If/whether clauses (If/whether从句)

  For example:

  • The question is whether foreign companies understand the local business environment (or not).
  • No one knows if the experiment will succeed (or not).

5.1.4 Adverb Clauses (状语从句/副词从句)

A dependent clause that answers questions like when, where, why, how, for what purpose, and under what conditions?

NOTE: as soon as possible is not a clause.

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Exercise:

Make sentences with adverb clauses

• People should try to eat healthy

  People should try to eat healthy even if they do not have time to cook.

• Should kids have the right to dress = [If kids should have the right to dress]

  If kids should have the right to dress, their parents should pay more.

• The exhibits were precious. A museum guard was posted in every room.

  The exhibits were precious, so that a museum guard was posted in every room.

• Smokers claim the right to smoke in public places. Nonsmokers claim the right to breathe clean air.

  Smokers claim the right to smoke in public places, while nonsmokers claim the right to breathe clean air.

5.1.5 Adjective Clauses (定语从句)

A dependent clause that functions as an adjective; gives more information about a noun or pronoun in the independent clause.

• Restrictive adjective clause (限制性定语从句): 用于修饰宽泛的事物

  The government which promises to cut taxes will be popular.

• Non-restrictive adjective clause (非限制性定语从句): 用于修饰专有名词, 加逗号

  New York, which is a city of America, is wealthy.

• Everyday English vs. Formal English
  Note the position of preposition words (介词位置!)
  

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Exercise:

Make sentences with adjective clauses

• Foreigners also have difficulty with French spelling. French spelling is not always consistent with its pronunciation.

  Foreigners also have difficulty with French spelling that is not always consistent with its pronunciation.

• Anyone must have a logical mind. He or she wants to be a doctor.

  Anyone whom wants to be a doctor must have a logical mind.

• Finding good jobs in big cities is a problem. Many young people are concerned about the problem. (make new sentences in formal and informal pattern.)

  Formal: Finding good jobs in big cities is a problem about which many young people are concerned.
  Informal: Finding good jobs in big cities is a problem that many young people are concerned about .

5.1.6 Participial Phrases (分词短语)

Participles are adjectives formed from verbs (we have two forms for verbs: active voice/passive voice).

This is useful for reducing the paper length.

Examples

• When you enter the classroom, you should turn off your mobile phone.

  When entering the classroom, you should turn off your mobile phone.

• The secrets of the castle, which have fascinated people for centuries, are slowly being revealed.

  The secrets of the castle, having fascinated people for centuries, are slowly being revealed.

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Exercise.

Rewrite sentences with participial phrases

• After I had received my Ph.D., I went to HIT for three years.

  After having received my Ph.D., I went to HIT for three years.

• I enjoyed living in a big city while I was working at HITSZ.

  I enjoyed living in a big city while working at HITSZ.

• Before I left home, I promised my children that I would return.

  Before leaving home, I promised my children that I would return.

• Because I am the eldest daughter, I am responsible for taking care of my parents.

  Being the eldest daughter, I am responsible for taking care of my parents.

5.2 Types of Sentences

5.2.1 Overview

Types

Simple Sentence

Compound Secntence

Complex Secntence

Compound-Complex Secntence

5.2.2 Simple sentence

Definition: One independent clause.

For example: I am Deadpool.

5.2.3 Compound sentence (并列句)

• Definition: Two or more independent clauses joined together.

  For example:

  • She is good at math, so she figured it out quickly.
  • I am Deadpool, so I can handle problem optimistically.
  • Many of the settlers had never farmed before, nor were they ready for the brutal winters.

• How to make a compound sentence?

  • Common Coordinators (并列连词):

    FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

  • With a conjunctive adverb (连接副词):

    I am Deadpool; therefore, I can handle problem optimistically.

  • With a semicolon ( ; )

    I am Deadpool; I can handle problem optimistically.

5.2.4 Complex sentence (复合句)

Definition: One independent clause plus one or more dependent clauses

• Noun clause: She does not agree that math is easy.
• Adverb clause: Because math is easy, I learned it quickly.
• Adjective clause: The lady I met that day was my teacher.

5.2.5 Compound-Complex Sentence

Definition: Two or more independent clauses plus one or more dependent clauses

For example:

• Because English grammar is easy, I learned it quickly, but it took me several years to master writing. (one dependent clause and two independent clauses)
• I wanted to travel after I graduated from college, but I had to go to work immediately because I had to support my family. (two dependent clauses and two independent clauses)

5.3 Parallel Structures & Sentence Problems

5.3.1 Parallelism

• Definition: Two or more phrases or clauses in a sentence that have the same grammatical structure
• For example:
  • Einstein is not only a genius in physics but also he is a musician.
  • Einstein is not only a genius in physics but also a musician.

5.3.2 Sentence Fragments (残缺句)

我愿称之为急死强迫症

• Definition: Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences or parts of sentences
• For example:
  • Because some students work part-time while taking a full load of classes
  • To live and work at least one year in a foreign country
• Corrections:
  • Before: Teachers who give too much homework.
  • After: Teachers who give too much homework are unpopular.

5.3.3 Choppy Sentence (简短句)

• Definition: Choppy sentences are sentences that are too short.
• For example:
  • Oliver left his homeland. Then he lived in a foster family for several months. Then he got his documents. Then he traveled to Australia. And he lives there now.
  • Wind is an enduring source of power. Water is also an unlimited energy source. Dams produce hydraulic power. They have existed for a long time. Windmills are relatively new.
• Corrections:
  • After Oliver left his homeland, he lived in a foster family for several months. As soon as he got his documents, he traveled to Australia, where he lives now.
  • Both wind and water are enduring sources of power. Dams have produced hydraulic power for a long time, but windmills are relatively new.

5.3.4 Run-on Sentence (连写句)

• Definition: A run-on sentence is a sentence when two or more independent clauses are written one after another with no punctuation.
• For example:
  • My family went to Australia then they emigrated to Canada.
  • Getting married is easy staying married is another matter.
• Corrections:
  • My family went to Australia , then they emigrated to Canada.
  • Getting married is easy , but staying married is another matter.

5.3.5 Stringy Sentence (粘连句)

• Definition: A stringy sentence is a sentence with too many clauses, usually connected by and, but, so, and sometimes because.
• For example:
  • Oliver left his homeland, and he lived in a foster family for several months, but finally he got his documents, so he traveled to Australia, and he lives there now.
• Corrections:
  • After Oliver left his homeland, he lived in a foster family for several months. As soon as he got his documents, he traveled to Australia, and lives there now.