副词

Definition

An adverb refers to any element in a sentence used to modify a verb, adjective, another adverb, or even an entire clause
Adverbs can be single words
They can also be phrases (called adverbial phrases) or entire clauses (called adverbial
clauses)
• “She ran very quickly so as not to be late.” (The adverbial phrase very quickly 	modifies the verb ran.)
• “The cat lives in the shed.” (The adverbial prepositional phrase in the shed modifies the verb lives.”
• “She looked excited, as if she could jump up and dance at any moment.” (The adverbial clause as if she could jump up and dance at any moment modifies the independent clause She looked excited.)

Single-word adverbs, adverbial phrases, and adverbial clauses are sometimes grouped together under the umbrella term adverbials

Categories of Adverbs

Regular and irregular adverbs

Regular adverbs are formed by adding “-ly” or some variation thereof onto the end of an
adjective
Irregular adverbs, on the other hand, are adverbs that are not formed according to standard
English spelling conventions

Comparative and Superlative Adverbs

Adverbial Phrases

Adverbs modified by mitigators and intensifiers

Adverbial phrases are commonly formed when an adverb’s intensity is being modified by
another adverb. 
• “The kicker is running somewhat slowly back to the bench. He might be injured.”
(mitigator)
• “She performed very well on her exam.” (intensifier)

Prepositional phrases

Prepositional phrases are often used adverbially in a sentence
• “We were playing Frisbee at the park.”
• “After they woke up, they packed up their things and went on a hike.”

Infinitive phrases

We can also use infinitive phrases as adverbial phrases in a sentence to describe purpose or
reason for an action or state of being. 
• “Patricia went to the mountains to go for a hike.”
• “I’m so happy to be your friend.”

Adverbial Clauses

An adverbial clause, or adverb clause, is a group of words that contains a subject and a
predicate verb and is used, like a regular adverb, to modify adjectives, verbs, and adverbs.
Adverbial clauses use subordinating conjunctions to connect them to independent clauses;
the way an adverbial clause modifies an element in a sentence depends on the kind of
subordinating conjunction used.
• “I will arrive when dinner is ready.” (adverbial clause of time)
• “Peter brings his sunglasses everywhere he goes.” (adverbial clause of place)
• “I admire you because you are an inspiration to many people.” (adverbial clause of
purpose)
• “They’ll approve your request provided you pay the appropriate amount of money.”
(adverbial clause of condition)
• “She looked excited, as if she could jump up and dance at any moment.” (adverbial
clause of comparison or manner)
• “Although she doesn’t have much money, Wendy often goes traveling.” (adverbial
clause of contrast)

Order of Adverbs

1. Adverbs of Manner
2. Adverbs of Place
3. Adverbs of Frequency
4. Adverbs of Time
5. Adverbs of Purpose

Adverbs of Time

Definition

Positioning

Special exceptions

Later

• “She spoke to an adviser later.” (A simple sentence with no particular emphasis.)
• “Later, she spoke to an adviser.” (Extra emphasis on when she spoke to the advisor.)
• “She later spoke to an adviser.” (Slightly formal tone, as might be used by someone
reporting the sequence of events to someone else.)

Yet

• “He hasn’t gone to the doctor yet.”
• “We have not yet sold our house.”
• “Have you finished your homework yet?”
However, yet can also be used after auxiliary verbs and before the main verb in positive
sentences to talk about a future possibility, 
• “I have yet to decide whether I’m leaving.”
• “They may yet file for bankruptcy.”
• “Things could yet improve in the region.”
• “We might yet be able to strike a deal with them.”

Still

Adverbs of Duration – For and Since

When we use for, we pair it with a word or words that specify a length of time; 
with since, on the other hand, we use specific points in time. 
• “I have been running for three hours.”
• “They have been waiting for two months to be seen by a doctor.”
• “For 10 years, we’ve seen this country’s economy continue to decline.”

• “Our computer systems have been having issues since last week.”
• “We have been looking since September for a place to live.”

In Proper Order

Remember, adverbs of time can be used to describe three different aspects: duration,
frequency, and certain points in time (when).
• “I went door to door for two hours every afternoon last year.”
• “He will be traveling for two years after college.”
• “The train runs hourly in the fall.”
If one aspect of time is being given particular emphasis in the sentence, then it generally
comes later in the order.
• “I went door to door every afternoon last year for two hours.”
 we can’t use since in the same way with multiple adverbs.
 ✖ “She’s known him since high school each day this year.” (incorrect)

Sources of confusion

Soon vs. Early

Early--it means before the expected or required time.
Soon--for a future time frame

Any longer vs. Any more vs. No longer

Any longer and any more (or anymore, see below) are synonyms, and they can be used
interchangeably
need to use don’t/doesn’t 
positioned at the end of the sentence.

 no longer, it comes between the subject and the verb
  used in positive sentences 
  • “I don’t work for that company any longer.”
• “I don’t eat meat anymore.”
• “I no longer work for that company.”
• “I no longer eat meat.”

Anymore vs. Any more

No longer vs. no more

no more--often used as a pronoun phrase meaning “no further
amount (of something).” 
✔ “We will tolerate no more.” (correct)
✖ “We will tolerate no longer.” (incorrect)
a common slang expression is to use no more as an adverb in a
negative sentence, as in, “He doesn’t work there no more.” 

Adverbs of Place

Definition

Position in a sentence

• “We were walking north.” (intransitive—adverb follows the verb)
• “He kicked the ball into the field.” (transitive—adverb follows the object)
• “In this house we have lived our entire lives.”
• “Outside the office, I could hear my parents talking to the principal.”
• “Across the meadow I spied a beautiful woman.”
• “Onwards we marched, hoping to arrive before sunset.”
• “Ever upwards the mighty redwood trees grow.”
• “Here is the book I was telling you about.”
• “There is the rest of the team!”

Types of adverbs of place

Adverbs of direction

- up, down, across, north, south, east, west.
• “The house is situated north of the city.”
• “Let’s drive down a bit farther.”
• “They walked across the field.”

Adverbs of movement and direction

- homeward(s), backward(s), forward(s), or onward(s)
• “We headed eastwards.”
• “The people all gazed upwards at the meteor shower.”

Toward and towards

actually a preposition—it cannot stand alone as an adverb. It must be followed by a noun to create a prepositional phrase, which can then function adverbially to describe movement
• “I saw them coming toward me.”
• “He walked towards the car.”

Adverbs of location

Here are a few common adverbs related to position that can also function as
prepositions:
behind, inside, outside, next to, between, over

As adverbs

• “We were waiting outside.”
• “I kicked the ball around.”
• “The others started lagging behind.”

As prepositions

• “We were waiting outside his office.”
• “I kicked the ball around the field.”
• "The others started lagging behind us.”

Adverbs of movement and location

indoors, inside, outdoors, outside, uphill, downhill and abroad.
• "Our mother told us to go play outside for a while.”
• “I absolutely hate running uphill.”
• “They’re thinking of going abroad for their vacation.”

Unspecified location or direction

Everywhere, somewhere, anywhere, and nowhere are adverbs of place. They describe
locations or directions that are indefinite or unspecific.

Here and there

• “I put my book there.”
• “Yes, you can sit down here.”

• “There’s the restaurant we were looking for.”
• “Here I am!”
It may seem like there in the first example is functioning as the subject of the verb is, but it is
actually functioning as an adverb. In this construction, the subject (the restaurant) is
inverted with the verb is.

As the object of a preposition

• “Please put the table over there.”
• “Why are the keys up here?”
• “Don’t put your muddy boots on there!”
• “It’s rather hot in here.”

With the adjective bound

• homeward bound
• bound south
• bound for home

Adverbs of Manner

Definition

Creating adverbs of manner

• “She sings beautifully.” (Beautifully is an adverb of manner. It describes the verb “sing.” How does she sing? She sings beautifully.)

Changes in spelling

• “They work enthusiastically.”
• “The children are playing happily.”
• “He plays golf terribly.”
If an adjective already ends in “-ly,” we can give it an adverbial function by simply using it in the adverbial prepositional phrase “in a ______ manner”:
• “They played in a lively manner.”

Irregular adverbs

 straight, fast, and hard all remain the same (with no “-ly” ending) when
they function as adverbs.
 wrong can become wrongly, or simply remain wrong—both are acceptable.
 well is the irregular adverb of the adjective good—but well can be used as an
adjective, too!

Adverbial Phrases

other prepositional phrases can also function as
adverbs of manner. 
• “They left in a hurry.”
• “He lived without a care.”
• “I slept like a baby last night.”

Positioning

Modifying verbs

dverbs of manner most commonly come directly after intransitive verbs that they modify
If the verb is transitive, then the adverb must not immediately follow the verb; it can either come before the verb or after the direct object. 
• “He speaks well.” (intransitive)
• “She walked slowly.” (intransitive)
✖ “Janet wrote beautifully the letter.” (transitive—incorrect)
✔ “Janet wrote the letter beautifully.” (transitive—correct)

Rearranging the order

Modifying clauses

• “Quietly, he held the candle aloft.”
• “He quietly held the candle aloft.”

Adjectives

adverbs of manner always come before the adjective they modify;
✔ “The book was beautifully profound.” (correct)
✔ “The prisoner remained stoically silent.” (correct)
✖ “Darling, you are brave wonderfully.” (incorrect)

Adverbs of Degree

Definition

Degrees of strength

mild, medium, strong, or absolute
mild, medium, or strong are known as grading adverbs
 those that describe an absolute state or degree are known as non-grading adverbs
• “He undoubtedly stole the money.” (Absolute; non-grading)
• “He is definitely coming to the party.” (Absolute; non-grading)
• “It’s absolutely freezing outside.” (Absolute; non-grading)
• “She is very sorry for her bad behavior.” (Strong; grading)
• “I really love reading good books.” (Strong; grading)
• “She’s quite mad.” (Strong)
• “I quite like Indian food.” (Medium)
• “My camera was pretty expensive.” (Medium)
• “It’s a bit cold outside.” (Medium or mild, depending on the speaker’s emphasis.)
• “It will take a bit longer to complete.” (Mild)
• “We were somewhat surprised.” (Mild)

Adverbs of degree with gradable vs. nongradable adjectives

Because non-gradable adjective describe an absolute state, they can generally only be modified by non-grading adverbs of degree. 
Likewise, gradable adjectives are generally only paired with grading adverbs
of degree. 

There are exceptions to this rule, however: the adverbs really, fairly, pretty, and quite can all be used with both gradable and non-gradable adjectives:

Enough as an adverb of degree

• “He didn’t finish the exam quickly enough.”
• “I’ll be happy enough to be back home.”
• “The play was interesting enough, but I wouldn’t go see it again.”

Enough as an adjective

Enough as a pronoun

you’ve studied enough

Mitigators

Definition

• rather
• pretty
• slightly
• fairly
• a bit
• a little bit
• just a bit
• just a little bit
• a little

Difference from intensifiers

• very
• remarkably
• extremely
• amazingly
• incredibly
• completely
• exceptionally
• super
• really

Importance in sentences

Intensifiers

Definition

• very
• remarkably
• extremely
• amazingly
• incredibly
• completely
• exceptionally	
• super
• really

Difference from mitigators

Importance in sentences

Adverbs of Frequency

Definition

can describe verbs and adjectives

Range of frequency

Adverbs of definite frequency

modify verbs
yearly/annually
biannually (This can mean either twice a year or two times in a year, depending on
context.)
quarterly (Meaning four times in a year, at the end of every quarter.)
monthly
weekly
daily
hourly
every minute (Minutely means the same thing, but is much less commonly used.)
every second (We do not say secondly, because this means “in the second place.”)
	
Note that most of the “-ly” adverbs above can also function as adjectives, as in “yearly
meetings,” “monthly report,” “hourly updates,” etc

Adverbs of indefinite frequency

can modify both verbs and adjectives	

Modifying verbs

Positioning

• “We seldom see her anymore.”
• “Usually, I would go to the movies on Sundays, but not this time.”
• “He comes up to visit sometimes.”
• “Never have I felt so insulted!”
• “Rarely does she leave the house unattended.”

Different tenses

• “She will occasionally go for walks alone.”
• “You can seldom see very far because of the fog.”
• “That is often the case.”
• “This class is always a bore!”

Putting extra emphasis on be

The only time adverbs of frequency come before the verb be (when it is not used with an auxiliary verb) is when be is given extra emphasis in a sentence
• “I never was fond of his writing.”
Though it comes before was, the adverb never is actually modifying the adjective fond

Note that this construction can also be used when the adverb modifies be rather than an adjective
• “You occasionally are a nit-picker.”

Adverbs of Purpose

Definition

They can modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs

Types of Adverbs of Purpose

Adverbs of purpose are generally made up of 
conjunctive adverbs, 
prepositional phrases,
infinitive phrases, 
or adverbial clauses

Conjunctive adverbs of purpose

 thus,
therefore, 
consequently, 
hence, 
and as a result
• “Jen hadn’t enjoyed the play; as a result, she didn’t recommend it.”
 “We’ve never seen such high numbers. We must therefore conclude that the results are not
normal.
• “There has been some talk of the company going bankrupt in the near future; she is
consequently looking for a new job.”

Non-conjunctive adverbs of purpose

• “The clothing is handcrafted and hence expensive.”
• “I’ve grown fond of our time together and am thus sad to see it end.”

Adverbial phrases of purpose

prepositional phrases and infinitive phrases.

Prepositional phrases

It is very common to use prepositional phrases adverbially, and in some cases they can be
used to indicate purpose
• “I am feeling tired because of this cold.”
• “Because of my operation, I had to cancel my flight.”
for,
given, 
owing to, 
and due to*. 
• “He had to leave early owing to an emergency at the hospital.”
• “Given the huge amount of public interest, they are extending the program for another
three months.”
• “Our game was delayed due to rain.”*

Infinitive phrases

Infinitives and infinitive phrases can serve as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs
infinitives of purpose
• “I started running to improve my health.”
 in order and so as to add formal emphasis to an infinitive of
purpose, as in:
• “We must leave now in order to catch our train.”

Lone infinitives of purpose

We can also use infinitives in this way as isolated responses to questions asking why
something is done or is the case.
• Speaker A: “Why are you going to New York?”
• Speaker B: “To see the Empire State Building.”

Adverbial clauses of purpose

subordinating conjunctions 
as, 
because, 
since*, 
so (that), 
in order that, 
for fear that, 
hence, 
or (less commonly) lest** 
to create adverbial clauses that indicate reason or purpose.
• “I am exhausted because I was working all night.”
• “As it’s raining, we probably shouldn’t play in the park today.”
• “For fear that his son may get hurt, Dan never lets him play any contact sports.”
• “I should explain myself to him, lest he thinks I am being ungrateful.”**

Focusing Adverbs

Definition

Focusing adverbs are used to draw attention 
to a particular part of a clause. 
They frequently point to 
verb phrases, 
but they can also draw attention to 
noun phrases, 
prepositional phrases, 
adjective phrases, 
and adverbial phrases.
• Through intonation: “I know Tom is coming to the party.”
• Using a focusing adverb: “I know that at least Tom is coming to the party.”

Types of Focusing Adverbs

Adding information

also
as well
too
 emphasize information that is being added to previous information
 • “Tom is coming to the party and is also bringing James.”
• “Tom is coming to the party, and James is coming too.”

Limiting information

• alone
• but
• exactly
• exclusively
• just
• merely
• not only
• only
• precisely
• purely
• simply
• solely
Example: “I’m going to study for exactly half an hour, then I’ll go to the party.”
Implication: I will study for no more than half an hour.

Partially limiting information

• chiefly
• especially
• mainly
• mostly
• notably
• particularly
• in particular
• predominantly
• primarily
• at least
• for the most part
• by and large
Example: “I want everybody to come to the party, especially James.”
Implication: I want everybody to come to the party, but I want James to come the most.
Example: “The people coming to the party are going to be predominantly students.”
Implications: There are a variety of people coming to the party, but the majority will be
students.

Other purposes

Negatives

neither/nor
Example: “Neither Tom nor James turned up at the party.” or:
“Tom didn’t turn up to the party, and neither did James.”

Choices

we can use either/or.
Example: “You can either bring Tom or James to the party.”
Implication: You have to choose one friend to bring. You cannot bring both.

Surprise

Example: “Even Tom was at the party!”
Implication: Absolutely everybody was at the party, including Tom, which was unexpected.

Placement

Focusing adverbs can take the initial, middle, or final position in a sentence depending on
what you want them to draw attention to.

According to what you want to emphasize

“Jen can play piano for her friends at the party.” Notice how the meaning
changes as we move around the focusing adverb only:
1. “Only Jen can play piano for her friends at the party.”
Implication: Nobody else can play piano for her friends
2. “Jen can only play piano for her friends at the party.”
Implication: Jen can’t do anything else at the party, or Jen cannot play any other instruments
for her friends.
3. “Jen can play only piano for her friends at the party.”
Implication: Jen cannot play any other instruments for her friends
4. “Jen can play piano for only her friends at the party.”
Implication: Jen can play piano for her friends, but not for anybody else.
5. “Jen can play piano for her friends only at the party.”
Implication: Jen cannot play piano for her friends in other circumstances.

Placement of focusing adverbs around verbs

When the focusing adverb modifies a verb or verb phrase, it is placed before the main verb
• “We didn’t go to the party. We just stayed at home.”
However, focusing adverbs should be placed after the verb be:
• “It is just Tom.”
When a focusing adverb modifies a verb phrase that includes an auxiliary verb and a main
verb, it is placed between them
• “Jen can only play piano for her friends at the party.”

Too and as well

the focusing adverbs  too and as well normally take the final position in a clause.
• “Tom is going to the party, and James is going too.”
• “I want to go to the party as well.”

Extra Notes

－ Also
also be used as a conjunctiv adverb
“Tom is coming to the party. Also, James is coming.”

－ Just
as a focusing adverb, just can limit the phrase it points to, in the same way as only or
merely.
 also mean recently, as in “I just got home”; 
 really, as in “I just love it here”;
 barely, as in “We just made it on time”;
 exactly, as in “It’s just ten o’clock right now.”

Negative Adverbs

Definition

Negative adverbs and negative adverbials (groups of words that function as an adverb) are used to modify the meaning of a verb, adjective, other adverb, or entire clause in a negative way

No and Not

Using no

often classed as a determiner or an exclamation
other grammarians argue that it’s an adverb
• “He is no better than his rival.”
• “She runs no more quickly than her sister.”

Using not with auxiliary and modal verbs

To negate a verb phrase, we insert not after the first auxiliary or modal verb
• “I have seen him here before.” (positive)
• “I have not seen him here before.” (negative)
• “I would have done the same.” (positive)
• “I would not have done the same.” (negative)

Using not with only a main verb

If the verb phrase contains only a main verb, we negate it by adding do/does/did + not
 “I go swimming on Mondays.” (positive)
• “I do not go swimming on Mondays.” (negative)
• “He works every day.” (positive)
• “He does not work every day.” (negative)

Using not with the verb be

When a form of the verb be is the only verb in the statement, we place not after it.
• “They are tall.” (positive)
• “They are not tall.” (negative)
• “It is an interesting project.” (positive)
• “It is not an interesting project.” (negative)

Other negative adverbs

let’s look at other negative adverbs. 
The principle characteristic they all have in common is that 
we don’t modify them with not 	
because they already express negative meaning on their own.

Negative adverbs meaning “almost not”

hardly
barely
scarcely
These negative adverbs are placed in the same position as not. 
They generally go after the
first auxiliary or modal verb, 
before a main verb when it is the only verb, 
and after forms of the verb be.
• “I hardly go out anymore.” (I almost don’t go out anymore.)
• “I can barely see the mountain through the clouds.” (I almost can’t see it.)
• “It’s scarcely surprising that you’re quitting your job.” (It is not very surprising at all.)

Negative adverbs meaning “not often” or “not ever”

no longer
rarely
seldom
barely ever
hardly ever
never
these adjectives are usually placed in the same position as not
• “I no longer cook at home.” (I cooked at home before, but now I don’t.)
• “He has seldom/rarely/hardly ever played football.” (very infrequently)
• “We are never late.” (not ever)
seldom, rarely, barely ever, and hardly ever are interchangeable.

Negative adverbs that emphasize quick succession of events

hardly
barely
scarcely
no sooner
Some of these are the same negative adverbs that mean “almost not,” 
but when we use them for events in quick succession, 
we must use them in combination with either when (for hardly, scarcely and barely), 
or than (for no sooner)
The first event is usually expressed in the past perfect tense, 
with the negative adverb following the auxiliary verb had. 
The two clauses are joined with when or than,
and the second event follows in the past simple tense.
• “We had hardly finished cleaning when the guests arrived.”
• “I had barely walked in the door when she called.”
• “We had no sooner put dinner on the table than the doorbell rang.”

Adverbial phrases for total negation

under no circumstances
in no way
on no condition
• “We in no way like this plan.” (We don’t like this plan.)
• “We have under no circumstances allowed them to come inside.” 
(They have definitely not been allowed inside.)
• “She is on no condition to be disturbed.” (Don’t disturb her.)

Using only for conditional negativity

Only can be used when we want to place conditions 
on whether something is going to occur or not.
It most closely means “exclusively,” and can be used in several combinations.
only… after
only… if
only… when
only… until
Usually, we place only before the action that may or may not occur, and if/after/when/until
before the condition.
• “I will only go to the movie if you go too.”
• “I’ll only help you when you ask for it.”

Using inversion

also very common for negative adverbs to appear at the beginning of a sentence.
when we want to place special emphasis on the negative adverb.
When we place the negative adverb at the beginning of the sentence, 
we must use inversion. 
This is when we rearrange the normal subject/verb order of the sentence. 
We already use the
principle of inversion all the time when we form questions. For example:
• “He has seen this movie.” (no inversion)
• “Has he seen this movie?” (inversion)

Inversion with auxiliary/modal verbs

• “I have never seen such a beautiful creature.” (no inversion)
• “Never have I seen such a beautiful creature.” (inversion)
• “He can under no circumstances play that game.” (no inversion)
• “Under no circumstances can he play that game.” (inversion)

Inversion with only a main verb

If a negative adverb is placed at the beginning of a sentence
that contains only a main verb,we must insert the auxiliary verbs do/does or did 
and use the bare infinitive form of the verb, just like when we form questions.
• “We in no way like this plan.” (no inversion)
• “In no way do we like this plan.” (inversion)
• “She scarcely leaves the city anymore.” (no inversion)
• “Scarcely does she leave the city anymore.” (inversion)

Inversion with the verb “be”

When a negative adverb begins a sentence that only contains the verb be, we switch the
order of the subject and be (again, the same as when we form questions):
• “We are seldom late.” (no inversion)
• “Seldom are we late.” (inversion)
• “He is hardly working.” (no inversion)
• “Hardly is he working.” (inversion)

Inversion of “only” for conditional negativity

• “I will only go to the movie if you go too.” (no inversion)
• “Only if you go too will I go to the movie.” (inversion)
• “I’ll only help you when you ask for help.” (no inversion)
• “Only when you ask for help will I help you.” (inversion)

Common Errors

Double Negatives

✖ “You shouldn’t under no circumstances cheat on a test.” (incorrect)
• Literal meaning: There are certain circumstances under which you should cheat.
✔ “You should under no circumstances cheat on a test.” (correct)
Meaning: You should never cheat.

 certain circumstances in which they can be used for an emphatic, rhetorical effect
• “Well, I didn’t not tell him the truth; I just didn’t tell him the whole truth.”// OK
• Literal meaning: I didn’t lie, I just left out some information.

Not using inversion

✖ “Under no circumstances you can watch that movie.” (incorrect)
✔ “Under no circumstances can you watch that movie.” (correct)
✖ “Never he did visit the Eiffel Tower.” (incorrect)
✔ “Never did he visit the Eiffel Tower.” (correct)

Conjunctive Adverbs

Definition

• “Jen hadn’t enjoyed the play; therefore, she didn’t recommend it to her friend.”
The two independent clauses are now connected in a more natural way, using the conjunctive adverb therefore.

Punctuating the clauses

✔ “Jen hadn’t enjoyed the play; therefore, she didn’t recommend it.” (correct)
✔ “Jen hadn’t enjoyed the play. Therefore, she didn’t recommend it.” (correct)
✖ “Jen hadn’t enjoyed the play, therefore, she didn’t recommend it.” (incorrect)

Choosing a conjunctive adverb

Result

the second clause is a result of something that happened in the first clause
therefore
accordingly, 
as a result, 
consequently, 
hence, 
and thus 

Comparison

comparatively
and similarly
• “Jen grew up in New York City; similarly, her boyfriend grew up in inner-city Chicago.”
• “Sam always wanted to be a famous movie star; comparatively, his brother wanted to be a famous rock star.”

equally and likewise.
• “Jen grew up in New York; likewise, her boyfriend was raised in the city.”
• “Sam always wanted to be a movie star; equally, his brother dreamed of starring in films.”

Contrast

• “Tom has a black backpack; in contrast, his brother has a white one.”
• “I absolutely love singing; on the other hand, my sister hates it.”
• “Jen is terrible at math; however, her friend is amazing at it, so she helps her.”

 the two clauses are opposing but are not complete opposites
 we are limited to using only the weaker of the contrasting conjunctive adverbs
 ✔ “Jen is terrible at math; however, she still likes it.” (correct)
✖ “Jen is terrible at math; on the other hand, she still likes it.” (incorrect)

Adding information

 also or in addition
 • “Her favorite animals are dogs; also, she likes cats.”
  add information that further explains something, we use besides. 
  • “I heard this movie is terrible; besides, I hate horror films.”

Adding stronger information

add has more value (is stronger) than the information in the first clause
further, furthermore, or moreover.
• “He was fired because he was often late; furthermore, the quality of his work was poor.”

Unexpected result

When the second clause is an unexpected result of the first clause, 
nevertheless, nonetheless, surprisingly or still. 
• “I am terrible at math; nonetheless, I passed my exam!”
• “That car cost far too much money; nevertheless, Tom bought it.”
• “She has never been to France; surprisingly, she speaks French fluently.”

Emphasis

indeed or in fact.
• “I didn’t study as much as I should have; indeed, I hardly opened a book!”
• “He doesn’t like swimming very much; in fact, he hates all sports!”

Condition

otherwise is used to place conditions on whether something will occur or not
• “You have to come with me; otherwise, I’m not going.”

Where to use conjunctive adverbs

At the beginning of the second clause

• “Jen hadn’t enjoyed the play; thus, she didn’t recommend it.”

In the middle of the second clause

• “Jen hadn’t enjoyed the play; she therefore didn’t recommend it.”
• “Jen hadn’t enjoyed the play; she decided, therefore, not to recommend it.”
• “Jen hadn’t enjoyed the play; she did not, as a result, recommend it.”

At the end of the second clause

• “Jen hadn’t enjoyed the play; she did not recommend it, consequently.”
• “I wanted to stay in bed; I went to the park instead.

Evaluative Adverbs

Definition

 Evaluative adverbs modify the entire clause

Types of Evaluative Adverbs

To indicate a degree of certainty

• “Clearly, we're going to have to work harder.” (I am sure that we are going to have to work harder.)

To indicate attitude

• “Astonishingly, she did well on the test.” (I feel surprised that she did well on the test.)

To indicate judgment

	• “I stupidly forgot my phone at home.” (I forgot my phone at home, and I think that was stupid of me.)
	• “She bravely traveled across Asia alone.” (She traveled across Asia alone, and, in my opinion, that was brave.)

Sentence Placement

• “Clearly, he didn’t mean to ignore you.”
• “He didn’t mean to ignore you, clearly.”
probably and definitely are most likely to occur in this position, 
appearing after the subject or after the verb be.
• “He probably didn’t mean to ignore you.”
• “He is probably really good at chess.”

• “She bravely told the truth.”
• “Bravely, she told the truth.”
• “She told the truth, bravely.”

Viewpoint Adverbs

Definition

While evaluative adverbs are used to give an opinion, viewpoint adverbs are used to indicate whose point of view we are expressing, or to specify what aspect of something we are talking about. 
They modify an entire sentence or independent clause.

Indicating point of view

according to me/you/him/her/them
as far as I/you/he/she/they am/is/are concerned
in my/your/his/her/their opinion
in my/your/his/her/their view
to my/your/his/her/their knowledge
from my/your/his/her/their perspective
from my/your/his/her/their point of view
personally
 “In my opinion, you shouldn’t go to that party.” 
 (I believe you shouldn’t go to that party.)
• “According to my sister, 
I have a fantastic sense of humor.” 
(My sister thinks I have a fantastic sense of humor.)

Specifying an aspect of something

biologically
environmentally
ideologically
industrially
financially
formally
inwardly
linguistically
mathematically
medically
morally
officially
outwardly
physically
politically
scientifically
technically
theoretically
visually
 “Biologically, 
insects are some of the most amazing creatures on the planet.” 
(From a biological point of view, insects are amazing.)
“Industrially, 
19th-century London was the most advanced city in the world.” 	(19thcentury London was the most advanced city in terms of industry.)

	
adverb + “speaking”
“in terms of” + noun
“in” + adjective + “terms”
“from a” + adjective + “point of view”
“as far as” + noun + “is concerned”
• “Biologically speaking, insects are some of the most amazing creatures on the planet.”
• “In terms of biology, insects are some of the most amazing creatures on the planet.”
• “In biological terms, insects are some of the most amazing creatures on the planet.”
• “From a biological point of view, insects are some of the most amazing creatures on the planet.”
• “As far as biology is concerned, insects are some of the most amazing creatures on the planet.”

Sentence Placement

• “You shouldn’t go to that party, in my opinion.”
• “Insects are some of the most amazing creatures on the planet, biologically speaking.”
• “You shouldn’t, in my opinion, go to that party.”
• “We are not, in official terms, allowed to sit here.”

Relative Adverbs

Definition

However, 
while relative pronouns (such as that, which, or who) are used to relate information to a person or a thing, 
relative adverbs (where, when and why) are used when the information relates to a place, time, or the reason an action took place.

Functions of relative adverbs Place

• “The house where I was born is a very special place.”
• “Paris, where I want to live, is the most beautiful city in the world.”

Time

• “The 80s were a time when big hair was considered fashionable.”
• “I love casual Fridays, when we get to wear jeans to work.”

Reason

 the noun being modified is “the reason,” 
 but it is often omitted to reduce repetitiveness. 
• “I don’t know the reason why he got angry.”
OR
• “I don’t know why he got angry.”

Restrictive and non-restrictive relative clauses

Like relative pronouns, 
relative adverbs can introduce a restrictive relative clause 
(also called a defining clause), 
or a non-restrictive relative clause 
(also known as a nondefining clause). 

Restrictive relative clauses

• “The house where I was born is a very special place.”

Non-restrictive relative clauses

 where and when, 
 can be used to introduce non-restrictive relative clauses; 
 why cannot.
• “Paris, where I want to live, is the most beautiful city in the world.”

Formality

Relative adverbs are used in daily speech and writing to take the place of the structure preposition + which. 
• “This is the house in which I was born.”
• “April 10th is the day on which I met my husband.”
• “Do you know the reason for which the sky is blue?”

Adverbial Nouns

Definition

Adverbial nouns are nouns or noun phrases that function grammatically as adverbs to modify verbs and certain adjectives.

Modifying verbs

Time

• “I am leaving tomorrow.”
• “We walked an hour out of town.”
• “I’ll see you next year.”

Distance

• “I run five miles every day.”
• “I can barely see a foot in front of me in this fog.”

Weight

 “They are displaying a block of cheese that weighs [a ton]!”
• “I’m trying to lose [a few pounds] before the wedding.”

Age

• “She is [35 years] old.” (In this case, the adverbial noun phrase modifies the adjective old.)
• “This wine is aged [25 years].”

Monetary value

• “This car only costs $2,000.”
• “That speeding ticket set me back 300 bucks.”

Complementing certain adjectives

Certain adjectives, such as worth and due, are able to take nouns or noun phrases as complements when they are in a predicative position
• “This coat is only worth a dollar.”
• “I think Mary is due an apology.”
• “He is very much like your brother.”

sometimes considered to be more like prepositions than adjectives 

Regular and Irregular Adverbs

Definition

Regular adverbs

Adjective + “-ly”

This occurs when an adjective ends in a consonant (except for “-ic”) 
or a consonant + “-e” (except for “-le”). 
• “She is a beautiful singer.”
• “She sings beautifully.”
• “He is a slow walker.”
• “He walks slowly.

Adjectives ending in “-ic”

If the adjective ends in “-ic,” for instance, it will become “-ically”
• “They are enthusiastic students.”
• “They work enthusiastically.”
• “Why are you so noisy when you eat?”
• “Quit eating so noisily!”

Adjectives ending in “-le” and “-ue”

• “He is a terrible golfer.”
• “He plays golf terribly.”
•  “You will get what is due so long as you are true to your word."
• “It is duly noted that the defendant is truly remorseful.”

Irregular Adverbs

Spelling doesn’t change

• “A Ferrari is a fast car.
• “He drives fast.”
• “Draw a straight line.”
• “We drove straight.”
• “It was a lively game.”
• “Step lively,* everyone!”
• “I think I need to have an early night.”
• “I’m going to bed early tonight.”

Late vs. Lately

Late, as already mentioned, is both an adjective and an adverb. Lately, on the other hand, is only an adverb of time meaning “recently.” 
• “Why are you always late?” (adjective)
• “We arrived late.” (adverb)
• “I’ve been feeling unwell lately.” (adverb of time)
• Incorrect: “I hope the guests don’t arrive lately.”

Only adjectives

Timely and friendly are only adjectives. 
• “Please arrive in a timely manner.”
• “He spoke to me in a friendly way.”

Adverbs of frequency

yearly, weekly, daily, and hourly.
can function both as adjectives and adverbs
• “It’s good to have a daily routine.” (adjective)
• “I make sure to exercise daily.” (adverb)
• “I want weekly updates, Jenkins!” (adjective)
• “I update the boss weekly.” (adverb)

Wrong vs. Wrongly

but we can use wrong as an irregular adverb as well
However, wrong as an adverb must come after the verb if modifies
• “I guessed wrong.”
• “He filled out the form wrong.”

Good vs. Well

Adjectives after linking verbs

be, become, get, and the sense verbs feel, taste, look, sound, smell, and seem
are followed by predicative adjectives, not adverbs

Degrees of Comparison

Definition

Forming the comparative and superlative degrees

 one-syllable adverbs, 
 “-ly” adverbs, 
 and irregular adverbs. 

One-syllable adverbs

Adverbs ending in “-ly”

Irregular adverbs

Adverbs with two forms

Comparative Adverbs

Definition

While comparative adjectives describe similarities and differences between two nouns (people, places, or objects), 
comparative adverbs make comparisons between two verbs—that is, they describe how, when, how often, or to what degree an action is done.
• “John is faster than Tim.” (comparative adjective)
• “John runs faster than Tim.” (comparative adverb)
• “John is more careful than Tim in his work.” (comparative adjective)
• “John works more carefully than Tim.” (comparative adverb)

Forming Comparative Adverbs

One syllable + “-er”

More +“-ly” adverb

Irregular comparative adverbs

Comparative adverbs with two forms

Using Comparative Adverbs

Affirmative statements

• “An airplane moves faster than a car.”
• “I eat more neatly than my sister.”	
• “I work more carefully than I used to.”

• “A car moves slower/more slowly than an airplane.”
• “My sister eats more sloppily than me.”
• “I used to work less carefully than I do now.”

Negative Statements

if the statement contains 
an auxiliary or modal verb, 
or if it uses a form of the linking verb be, 
we insert the word not (either in its full or its contracted form)
• “My brother can run faster than me.” (affirmative)
• “My brother can’t run faster than me.” (negative)
• “Sam is learning to read more quickly than Jen.” (affirmative)
• “Sam is not learning to read more quickly than Jen.” (negative)
If a statement contains only a main verb, we add the auxiliary verb do/does/did and not. 
• “Tom sings more beautifully than Sam.” (affirmative)
• “Tom does not sing more beautifully than Sam.” (negative)
• “Cats hide better than dogs.” (affirmative)
• “Cats don’t hide better than dogs.” (negative)

Interrogatives

• “Did you always run faster than your brother?”
• “Has she ever performed better than you on a test?”
• “Can monkeys jump higher than cats?”

• “Who runs faster, you or your brother?”
• “Who performs better on tests, you or Jen?”
• “Which animal can jump higher, a cat or a monkey?”

• “Who runs faster than you?”
• “Who performs better on tests than Jen?”
• “What animal can jump higher than a monkey?”

Omitting one of the nouns

• Speaker A: “Who swims faster, you or your brother?”
• Speaker B: “My brother does, but I can run faster.”

Gradability

• “Tom can run much faster than his brother.”
• “Monkeys jump a lot higher than cats.”
• “Sam drives a little (bit) more carefully than Tom.”

Expressing equality and inequality using as

… as

 “as … as.” To describe two things as equal
• “I still run as slowly as I used to.”
• “Tom always drives as carefully as you’d want him to.”
• “Sam finished as quickly as his brother.”

• I don’t run as slowly as I used to.”
• “Tom doesn’t always drive as carefully as you’d want him to.”
• “Sam didn’t finish as quickly as his brother.”

Finally, we can inquire as to whether two actions are equal by adding the auxiliary verbs do/does or did to the beginning of the sentence and forming a question:
• “Do you still run as slowly as you used to?”
• “Does Tom drive as carefully as you’d want him to?”
• “Did Sam finish as quickly as his brother?”

Superlative Adverbs

Definition

how, when, how often, or to what degree an action is done.
• “John is the fastest runner of the group.” (superlative adjective)
• “John runs the fastest of the group.” (superlative adverb)

• “Out of all the students in the class, Sally is the most careful with her work.” (superlative adjective)
• “Out of all the students in the class, Sally works most carefully.” (superlative adverb)

Forming Superlative Adverbs

One syllable + “-est”

“-ly” adverbs

Irregular superlative adverbs

Superlative adverbs with two forms

Using Superlative Adverbs

• “Cars and motorcycles can go fast, but an airplane moves the fastest.”
• “I eat the most neatly among my siblings.”
• “She works the least carefully in her class.”

Omitting the group of comparison

• “My brothers are all fast swimmers. John swims the fastest, though.”
• “I work best by myself.” (compared to when other people are involved)
• “The engine runs most smoothly after it has warmed up for a while.” (compared to when the engine is cold)
• “Flowers bloom most beautifully in the spring.” (compared to the other seasons)

Expressing the lowest degree

“Though he performed the least compellingly among the other actors on stage, 
he was the most authentically dressed.”
• “John runs the fastest in his class, but he swims the least fast.”
• “John runs the fastest in his class, but he swims the slowest.”

Most as an intensifier

it simply adds intensity to the word, having approximately the same meaning as the adverb very.
• “You sang most beautifully, Jack.”
• “The play was most tastefully performed.”

Order of Adverbs

Definition

Because adverbs are used to modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, phrases, clauses, or even entire sentences, they are able to function nearly anywhere in the sentence, depending on their type and what it is they are modifying.
If we use more than one adverb to describe a verb
1. Manner
2. Place
3. Frequency
4. Time
5. Purpose

Categories of Adverbs

Adverbs of Manner

• “She sings beautifully.”
• “He walks slowly.”
• “The children are playing happily.”
If an adjective already ends in “-ly,” we can give it an adverbial function by simply using it in the prepositional phrase “in a ______ manner”:
• “They played in a lively manner.”
• “Please arrive in a timely manner.”

Adverbs of Place

specifying the direction, distance, movement, or position
• “He kicked the ball into the field.”
• “Let’s drive down a bit farther.”
• “Everyone gazed upwards at the meteor shower.”
• “I’ve looked everywhere for my book.”

Adverbs of Frequency

• “I run eight miles daily.”

` • “Every year, our office holds a big raffle for charity.”
• “We usually go to the movies on Sundays.”
• “Bethany always runs late for work in the morning.”

Adverbs of Time

• “I’m going to the movies tomorrow.”
• “Next year, I’m going to run for president.”
• “We’ve been dating for 10 years, and not once has he proposed!”

Adverbs of Purpose

They are generally made up of conjunctive adverbs, 
prepositional or infinitive phrases, or adverbial clauses

• “Jen hadn’t enjoyed the play; as a result, she didn’t recommend it.”
• “The clothing is handcrafted and hence expensive.”
• “Given the huge amount of public interest, 
they are extending the program for another three months.”
• “I went to the store to buy some milk.”
• “I am exhausted because I was working all night.”

Using multiple adverbs

 the order of adverbs is manner, place, frequency, time, and purpose.
 • “I have to run quickly (manner) down the street (place) each morning (frequency) after breakfast (time) in order to catch my bus to school (purpose).”

When we can change the order

While the order of adverbs is useful to keep in mind, it is a guide, rather than a law.

Introductory adverbs

• “In order to catch my bus to school (purpose), I have to run quickly (manner) down the street (place) each morning (frequency) after breakfast (time).”
• “Each morning (frequency), I have to run quickly (manner) down the street (place) after breakfast (time) in order to catch my bus to school (purpose).”
• “Impatiently (manner), I waited by the bank (place) for my father to arrive (purpose).”

it gives the adverb extra emphasis 

Short vs. long adverbs

tend to put adverbs that are shorter and more concise before those that are longer
• “I lived with my parents (place) to save money (purpose) while I working on my Ph.D. (time).”
• “He dances every night (frequency) in the most extraordinary way (manner).”

Multiple adverbs of the same category

• “On my father’s ranch (place), 
I often (frequency) helped gather the animals 
at the end of the day (specific time) 
when I was younger (non-specific time).”
• “I lived at home (more specific place) 
with my parents (less specific place) 
to save money (purpose) 
while I working on my Ph.D. (time).”