Two Systems
Psychologists have been intensely interested for several decades in the two modes of thinking evoked by the picture of the angry woman and by the multiplication problem, and have offered many labels for them. I adopt terms originally proposed by the psychologists Keith Stanovich and Richard West, and will refer to two systems in the mind,System 1 and System 2.
* System 1 operates automatically and quickly, with little or no effort and no sense of voluntary control.
* System 2 allocates attention to the effortful mental activities that demand it, including complex computations. The operations of System 2 are often associated with the subjective experience of agency, choice, and concentration.
The labels of System 1 and System 2 are widely used in psychology, but I go further than most in this book, which you can read as a psychodrama with two characters.
When we think of ourselves, we identify with System 2, the conscious,reasoning self that has beliefs, makes choices, and decides what to think about and what to do. Although System 2 believes itself to be where the action is, the automatic System 1 is the hero of the book. I describe System 1 as effortlessly originating impressions and feelings that are the main sources of the explicit beliefs and deliberate choices of System 2.The automatic operations of System 1 generate surprisingly complex patterns of ideas, but only the slower System 2 can construct thoughts in an orderly series of steps. I also describe circumstances in which System 2 takes over, overruling the freewheeling impulses and associations of System 1. You will be invited to think of the two systems as agents with their individual abilities, limitations, and functions.
In rough order of complexity, here are some examples of the automatic activities that are attributed to System 1:
* Detect that one object is more distant than another.
* Orient to the source of a sudden sound.
* Complete the phrase “bread and…”
* Make a “disgust face” when shown a horrible picture.
* Detect hostility in a voice.
* Answer to 2 + 2 = ?
* Read words on large billboards.
* Drive a car on an empty road.
* Find a strong move in chess (if you are a chess master).
* Understand simple sentences.
* Recognize that a “meek and tidy soul with a passion for detail”resembles an occupational stereotype.
All these mental events belong with the angry woman—they occur automatically and require little or no effort. The capabilities of System 1 include innate skills that we share with other animals. We are born prepared to perceive the world around us, recognize objects, orient attention, avoid losses, and fear spiders. Other mental activities become fast and automatic through prolonged practice. System 1 has learned associations between ideas (the capital of France?); it has also learned skills such as reading and understanding nuances of social situations.Some skills, such as finding strong chess moves, are acquired only by specialized experts. Others are widely shared. Detecting the similarity of a personality sketch to an occupational stereotype requires broad knowledge of the language and the culture, which most of us possess. The knowledge is stored in memory and accessed without intention and without effort.
Several of the mental actions in the list are completely involuntary. You cannot refrain from understanding simple sentences in your own language or from orienting to a loud unexpected sound, nor can you prevent yourself from knowing that 2 + 2 = 4 or from thinking of Paris when the capital of France is mentioned. Other activities, such as chewing, are susceptible to voluntary control but normally run on automatic pilot. The control of attention is shared by the two systems. Orienting to a loud sound is normally an involuntary operation of System 1, which immediately mobilizes the voluntary attention of System 2. You may be able to resist turning toward the source of a loud and offensive comment at a crowded party, but even if your head does not move, your attention is initially directed to it, at least for a while. However, attention can be moved away from an unwanted focus,primarily by focusing intently on another target.
The highly diverse operations of System 2 have one feature in common:they require attention and are disrupted when attention is drawn away.Here are some examples:
* Brace for the starter gun in a race.
* Focus attention on the clowns in the circus.
* Focus on the voice of a particular person in a crowded and noisy room.
* Look for a woman with white hair.
* Search memory to identify a surprising sound.
* Maintain a faster walking speed than is natural for you.
* Monitor the appropriateness of your behavior in a social situation.
* Count the occurrences of the letter a in a page of text.
* Tell someone your phone number.
* Park in a narrow space (for most people except garage attendants).
* Compare two washing machines for overall value.
* Fill out a tax form.
* Check the validity of a complex logical argument.
In all these situations you must pay attention, and you will perform less well,or not at all, if you are not ready or if your attention is directed inappropriately. System 2 has some ability to change the way System 1 works, by programming the normally automatic functions of attention and memory. When waiting for a relative at a busy train station, for example,you can set yourself at will to look for a white-haired woman or a bearded man, and thereby increase the likelihood of detecting your relative from a distance. You can set your memory to search for capital cities that start with N or for French existentialist novels. And when you rent a car at London’s Heathrow Airport, the attendant will probably remind you that “we drive on the left side of the road over here.” In all these cases, you are asked to do something that does not come naturally, and you will find that the consistent maintenance of a set requires continuous exertion of at least some effort.
The often-used phrase “pay attention” is apt: you dispose of a limited budget of attention that you can allocate to activities, and if you try to go beyond your budget, you will fail. It is the mark of effortful activities that they interfere with each other, which is why it is difficult or impossible to conduct several at once. You could not compute the product of 17 × 24 while making a left turn into dense traffic, and you certainly should not try. You can do several things at once, but only if they are easy and undemanding. You are probably safe carrying on a conversation with a passenger while driving on an empty highway, and many parents have discovered, perhaps with some guilt, that they can read a story to a child while thinking of something else.
Everyone has some awareness of the limited capacity of attention, and our social behavior makes allowances for these limitations. When the driver of a car is overtaking a truck on a narrow road, for example, adult passengers quite sensibly stop talking. They know that distracting the driver is not a good idea, and they also suspect that he is temporarily deaf and will not hear what they say.
Intense focusing on a task can make people effectively blind, even to stimuli that normally attract attention. The most dramatic demonstration was offered by Christopher Chabris and Daniel Simons in their book The Invisible Gorilla. They constructed a short film of two teams passing basketballs, one team wearing white shirts, the other wearing black. The viewers of the film are instructed to count the number of passes made by the white team, ignoring the black players. This task is difficult and completely absorbing. Halfway through the video, a woman wearing a gorilla suit appears, crosses the court, thumps her chest, and moves on.The gorilla is in view for 9 seconds. Many thousands of people have seen the video, and about half of them do not notice anything unusual. It is the counting task—and especially the instruction to ignore one of the teams—that causes the blindness. No one who watches the video without that task would miss the gorilla. Seeing and orienting are automatic functions of System 1, but they depend on the allocation of some attention to the relevant stimulus. The authors note that the most remarkable observation of their study is that people find its results very surprising. Indeed, the viewers who fail to see the gorilla are initially sure that it was not there—they cannot imagine missing such a striking event. The gorilla study illustrates two important facts about our minds: we can be blind to the obvious, and we are also blind to our blindness.
笔记：system 1：无法抗拒，瞬时完成。system 2:需要注意力，注意力没在上面就失去作用了。
黑猩猩实验:当一个任务很需要注意力，那么这个任务进行时大脑对于其他的stimulus（刺激）是blind。
we can be blind to the obvious, and we are also blind to our blindness.
对明显的事情无知无觉，也不知道自己不知道。
思考A：blind to the obvious， 例1：事业心重的男人容易忽视（体会不到）妻子家人的情感变化。例2：身在争吵的情绪信息的漩涡中，精神疲惫，没办法理清头绪，发现最重要的是什么 例3：从起点出发，途经各种各样的风景，被信息所淹没，久而久之，忘了当初出发的原因。
应对A：制定长期计划，定期复盘。
思考B：blind to our blindness
应对B：1.承认自己是无知的，不仅有几乎无尽的知识之海，还有更庞大的未知领域。2.三人行必有我师，见贤思齐，见不贤而内自省。